From the dawn of civilisation, man mankind has few several moments of continued peace. History is replete with wars which have been fought in the name of religion, conquest, for expanding economic domain etc. One of the major contradictions of human mind is that while we so desperately yearn for peace, we say "yes" willingly to war. Now there is re-emergence of the concepts of “Holy War” and “Just War”, which were the shibboleths of middle ages. There is nothing holy or just about a war. As mentioned by Roger Walsh in his book “Staying Alive”, “War can no longer be regarded as a legitimate means of obtaining national goals”. It is now absolutely necessary that we follow the message of peace; it is also more necessary in present times where leaders who make war are often geographically and emotionally distanced from the theatres of war and the consequences of their decisions. Apart from the war in the theatre, there are also wars now on the minds of man. For absolute peace of mankind, all forms of war should stop. What is the means for this ?
The UNESCO charter begins with the preamble “Since it is in the minds of men that wars are created, it is in the minds of men that the fortresses against war must be erected”. This is very much similar to the first verses of Dhammapada which states that the “Mind precedes all unwholesome states and is their chief ; all are all mind wrought. If with an impure mind a person speak or acts, misery follows him like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox. Whoever speaks or acts with a pure mind, contentment and peace follows him as the wheel of the cart follows that of the ox" (Dhammapada V 1.2). In this paper we would see how teachings of Buddha can be used to promote social harmony and universal peace.
Scientist Albert Einstein had made a statement that “although He was not a religious man, if he had been one he would have been a Buddhist” 1
While in many religions, peace is pursued as an ideal, in Buddhism, it is central to the structure of the Budhha Dhamma; Peace is integral to Buddhism and is an indispensable part of Buddhist understanding of Ultimate Reality of Nibbana and the way the Ultimate Reality impinges on mundane Reality. In the Sakka-Panha Sutta in the Digha Nikaya, the goal of Dhamma is described as the attainment of “Cessation, Peace, the Higher Spiritual Knowledge, Enlightenment and Nibbana”.2 The attainment of peace is the characteristic of Transcendental Reality.
Buddhist teachings delineate that peace is integral to the goal and also to the path, the "Tao". For this, attainment of two great virtues of Wisdom and Compassion is stressed. Liberation comes through the attainment of Wisdom and from Wisdom, as sine qua non, Compassion flows. The peace that relates to Wisdom is “Inner Peace” (Ajjhatta-Santi) (Sutta Nipata 837), which is the peace of inner mind. From the inner peace comes Compassion which turns this inner peace to outer world. At the same time, inner peace is deepened.
As mentioned in the beginning, mind is a source of peace and harmony as also of violence and sufferings. The Dhammapada says, "Mind is the foremost of all Realities Mind is the chief and all are mind-wrought. Who ever speaks or acts with a pure mind, contentment/ peace follows him as the wheel of the cart follows the foot of the ox.3
The importance of Buddhism as a facilitator of world peace lies in the fact that it has got certain unique characteristic. First and the foremost is that “it is not culture bound” i.e, to say that it is not restricted to any society, place or ethnic group.
The second aspect is the pragmatism of Buddhism and it practical orientation. It is not interested in theoretical questioning and metaphysics. It seeks to identify the cause of the problem with a view to root it out. The pragmatic approach of Buddhism is exemplified in the words of Buddha in the “Choola malunkya Sutta” in Majjhima Nikaya, where Buddha gives the parable pf the wounded man. He says that when a person is wounded by arrow instead of wishing to know who shot the arrow, the direction from which it cam, what is the arrow head made of, etc, he should get the arrow removed first.
Thirdly, is the importance stressed by Buddha on verifying the truth by the personal experience, as exemplified by his advice to the Kalamas contained in Kesia Puttia Sutta. He advised them to know everything in the light of their own experience instead of being guided by other people’s words. In this context, it can be said that often wars and other forms of psychological assaults are created by a mass hysteria by stirring the minds of the populace. Once a person seeks to find the truth through his experience, he would find war are not necessary and peace should be sought.
Mind is to be used as a kind of "private test tube" for acquisition of knowledge, Buddha stresses that the mind should be engaged in objective observation. The therapy starts from the mind. It is also very similar to the Hindu idea.
“Manaeva manushayanam karanam Bandha Mokshayo: "
For the world peace to be initiated through Compassion, it is necessary to purify the mind. The Buddhist path, (or Tao) teaches how to purify the mind and to initiate the process of Compassion to transform the world into a peaceful entity. Buddhist system teaches "Dhamma" which is a system of "psychological ethics". As quoted by Prof. George Bond in his essay on the “Promoting Social Harmony and Universal Peace through a Buddhist Value System”, Russel Hitterger mentions that "ethics of virtue requires a teleological scheme that links together “man as he is” with “man as he might become were his telos fulfilled”. The Virtues enable a human being to attain what Abraham Maslow calls as "self-actualisation" or the virtue-potential of his nature. An ethics of virtue stresses cultivating the qualities "as they are" rather than referring them as "duties". Virtues acts have to be performed from the basic will of man and not to be fulfilled with intentions behind them. In the words of David Hume “The external performance has no merit; all virtuous actions derive their merit only from virtuous motives”4
While the Western system delineates the "hierarchy of cardinal virtues" with relation to the ideal or goal, Buddhist system is based on the functioning of the mind, which would contribute towards "Inner Peace" and "Outer Peace". Buddhist system of psychological ethics is based on a precise explanation of the functioning of the Mind. This is clinically arranged with the concepts of "Kusala moola" and "akusala moola" - the profitable and unprofitable root terms or root virtues. (This is similar to what the Hindu texts call as "vasanas"). The root virtue of kusala moola operates at the level of will, and prompt the person to perform positive acts. The akusala moola form the defects of human character. The akusala moola is further delieneated as lobha, dosa and moha (greed, hatred and delusion) “The three wholesome root are the main criteria by which a state of consciousness is determined to be wholesome. These terms constitute the root of the entire system. They are the motive power which impel the other simultaneously arisen powers to act in the service of that motive” 5
What is the connection between these root and the goal of peace?
Each culture delineates virtues and vics depending on its understanding of nature. Inner Peace as mentioned by Prof. George Bond is an opposite quality to non profitable qualities like greed, anger, delusion. To attain inner peace, Akusal Moolas have to be eradicated. Buddha declares the Supreme goal as pacification of desire, hatred and delusion (Majjhima Nikaya, 111 246).
Why do this unprofitable or unpeaceful qualities arise?
According to Buddhist doctrine, they are related to the basic flaw of desire “Tanha” desire which is the source of things being dear or not dear. This would give birth to the feeling, this is how they come to be” 6
The violence arose in the world largely as a result of people acting propelled by greed, delusion and hatred, as brought out by Rousseau. Since people lacked wisdom and lived in ignorance of the Dhamma, they failed to practice charity. The Buddhist Dhamma points out that from the lack of charity came poverty and from poverty arose qualities like theft, violence, murder, lying and all of the other unvirtuous qualities of humanity. When the mind is full of defilement, there is no peace and thus negative qualities arise from that.
Similar Ideas have been brought out in Bhagwat Gita
"When a men thinks of objects "attachments" for them arises; from attachment, "desire" is born; from desire arises "anger" (Bhagvat Gita II 62)"
From anger comes delusion, from delusion "loss of memory"; from loss of memory "the destruction of discrimination"; from destruction of disccrimination, he "perishes" (Bhagvat Gita II 63)
True peace appears within when the mind is free from defilement. External objects do not provide peace. The Buddhist philosophy shows the way as to how to reach that stage in the world what becomes is free of greed, hatred and delusion. To reach a world shaped by non-attachment, peace and wisdom, we have to follow the path of Dhamma. The elements of the path are Sila, Samadhi and Panna. When you practice Sila, it goes to eliminate the unprofitable roots.
Silas encompass the 10 Kusala Kammapathas.
Actually these 10 Kammapathas directs us to abstain from.
1. Killing - panatipata
2. Taking what is not given voluntarily adinnadana
3. Carnal Misconduct - kamesu micchacara
4. Telling lies - musavada
5. Talking ill of others - pisuna vacaya
6. Harsh speech - pharusa vacaya
7. Frivolous talk - samphappalapa
8. Covetousness - abhijjhaya
9. Malevolence - byapada
10. Deluded view - miccha ditthiya
As against this, cultivation of mental actions like non-covetousness – (anabhijjha,) benevolence - (avyapada) and correct understanding (samma ditthi) help to create inner peace. The Nettiprakarana gives a further clarification linking them to Akusala Moolas. According to this, hatred is the root cause for the action of Kamesu micchacara and pharusa vacaya . Stealing, misconduct in sensual desire and speaking falsely are generated by the root, greed – (lobha), and frivolous speech springs up from by delusion , moha. According to Buddhaghosa. in many cases actions are motivated by the roots of greed or hatred also have delusion as a root. Thus killing arises not only from the root of hatred but also from that of delusion. Wrong conducts in the three categories in the body, speech or mind are the causes of mind’s unprofitable state.
Famed Buddhist Scholar Bhikku Dr. Bodhi mentions that “each percept has a tangible expression of the corresponding attitude of minds which flows in the form of concrete action a beam of a light of inner purity” 7
Thus there is recursive logic in the inner purity of mind and positive reinforcement of virtues.
How these Buddhist values help to promote Universal Peace? As mentioned by Dr George Bond and Bhikku Bodhi one may conform to mental cultivations with rules of Buddhist understanding of peace as the four Brahma Viharas i.e. Development of Metta, Karuna, Mudita and Upekkha. The cultivation of these Brahma Viharas help one obtain inner peace and facilitates outer peace in the world. The Buddha said “If any one comes forth develops the four Brahma Viharas, he gains inward calm or peace (Majjhima Nikaya I 284).
These are the motive practice that come under the heading of Samadhi. They also reflect the positive cognitive state of mind Metta and karuna are the anti theses to desire and self awareness when practiced, they act as antedote to bring inner peace which leads for foundation of peace in the external world . In the next stage of Upekkha or equanimity, the practitioner positions himself in the centre of his being. The mind is not swayed by any desire, which entrusts him with a perspective or the arising of the inner enjoyment. It is the reality behind the dualities of life.
As mentioned by Ven. Dhammandanda “Buddhist Values are based on the well being progress, freedom and happiness of all living being. The 10 Kammapathas are to be practiced for purification of morality, renunciation, Wisdom, energy, passion. Thus it can be seen to attain Universal peace we have to develop the qualities of Metta, Karuna, Mudita and uppekha. Let us see them in detail:
METTA:
Development of Metta or "loving kindness" invites us to enter the boundless heart of Buddha, to the seat of loving kindness. In the words of Dr.Patricia Sherwood, "It enobles what appear to be menial or repetitive tasks, helps defuse conflict and inspire the community to give energy. The eight fold path offers the principles along which it directs energy." Right knowledge and right attitude arise through the understanding of the interdependence of self and other. Right speech, action and livelihood is expressed through honesty and compassion. Right mindfulness and composure direct the quality of participation in community projects. Thus Metta creates symbiosis among the participants to develop individual qualities which can bring harmony and peace in the world.
KARUNA OR COMPASSION
Compassion is the translation of Metta into action for the well being of others. The compassion of Buddha appears in many Mahayana forms like the Kuan Yin of China, Kannon in Japan, Tara in Tibet as "hearer of the cries of the world".
To reach Boddhisattva state, it is not a merely individual liberation. As stated by Robert Truman "the coming to Buddha hood is a social event involving a whole field of sentient beings, whose collective existence must be developed to the point where the whole land is transformed, from an impure land of violence and exploitation and suffering into a pure land. We need human qualities such as moral scruples, compassion and humility.
Compassion implies radical action to transform one's consciousness and that of the social order into one which is based on social justice and a recognition of the rights and needs of all living beings. The sort of social re-engineering through Buddha was also started in India by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar. Compassion is a powerful form because it has, got its fountain head in open heart. The teachings of Buddha would be a powerful social force for turning humanity from violence to compassion.
MUDITA:
Mudita is "joy in another's joy". Mudita is complement to compassion with another's sorrow. It encourages us to see the best in humanity. A person with Mudita will see, as Shakespeare observes ;
"Tongue in trees
Books in running brooks
Sermons in Stones
And Good in everything".
This is the potential to see for the victory of peace on earth. Mudita also celebrates diversity of culture with respect for the needs of living beings. Sorting out the difference of opinion will lead to harmony and encouraged delicate interdependence among all lives. Buddhism wants all traditions celebrate their richness and variety, instead of trying to reduce all to faceless uniformity. Ophulus in his article on Buddhist politics sees the profound poitential of such a value to world peace. "A tolerant and convivial pluralism which rejoices in the richness of human diversity implies a global fraternity, in which powerful countries encourage others to retain and develop their won distinctive cultures and self reliant societies. Such a plural society would, at all levels, have the same untidy harmony as nature itself, with cooperation and conflict resolution as its great social arts.
UPEKKHA:
it means equanimity in the face of praise or blame. Upekkha promises sanity and peace in an increasingly arrogant and explosive world. As mentioned in Dhamma Pada "Self Conquest is indeed far greater than the conquest of all other folk; neither a god nor a Gandhabba nor Mara with Brahma can win back the victory of such a person who is self subdued and ever lives in restraint. Such an attitude releases one from stress and strains of modern life.
CONCLUSION:
Thus if we want to achieve universal peace, we need to follow the Buddhist values enshrined in the four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path and the Ten perfections. In the Sutta Nipata, Ajita, alluding to the flaws of human nature as flooding rivers, asks Buddha how to stop them. The Buddha replies, "Any river can be stopped with the dam of mindfulness. I call it the flood stopper. And with wisdom, you can close the flood gates".
Let us all develop that mindfulness and wisdom to achieve Universal Peace.
REFERENCES:
1. The Tree of Enlightenment, Peter Dalla Santina. The Buddha Educational Foundation, Taipei-1997 Page.3
2. Digha Nikaya Vol.2 Page 2 84
3. Dhammapada Chapter V, 1-2
4. David Hume’s Treatise of Humanity 3 para. By William Frankana,
Printsal Ink 1973 (Page 63)
5. Nyanaponika Thera, Abdidhamma Studies page 78
6. Cakkavatti Sihananda Sutta (Dhamma II 276) Page 4.
7. Bhikku Bodhi, Nourshing the roots and other Buddhist essays, Buddhist Educational Society, Kandy 1978.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Burtt, E. (1982) The Teachings of the Compassionate Buddha, Mentor,
Chicago.
2. Chah, Ajahn (1994) A Still Forest Pool, Theosophical house, Illinois.
3. Chah, Ajahn (1989) See the Way: Buddhist Reflections on the Spiritual Life, Amaravati, U.K.
4. Macy, J. (1991) World as Lover, World as Self, Parallex, California.
5. K.N.Jayatilleke, Buddhism and Peace, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1962, p.3.
6. Russel Hittinger, "After MacIntyre: Natural law Theory, Virtue Ethics and Eudaimonia" International Philosophical Quarterly Vol.XXIX, No.4, (dec.1989), p.453.
7. Philippa Foot, Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), p.2.
8. Max Weber, The Religion of India, (New York: The Free Press, 1967) p.214.
9. A.Guruge, Return to Righteousness (Colombo Government Press, 1965), p.3.
Thursday, August 30, 2007
“ DELINEATION OF EVIL IN THE MAHABHARATA AND ‘THE GANG OF FOUR’ ”.
Introduction :
Epics of India:
Itihasa, originated and grown in the context of ancient Indian civilization is very different from the European epic. The modern concept of history, imported to India from the west, has no alignment with Ithihasa. The use of chronology in terms of ordered sequence of intentions and actions rather than in the framework of dates and years is characteristic of Indian thought. In such a view history becomes infused with a purpose higher than merely to record the rise and fall of dynasties and succession of wars, which mention the chronicles of mere men. Noble qualities made them brave manfully with the work of mishaps.
Indian Epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata have a very different objective from that with which Homer’s epics were composed. It was the custom in Homer’s days for bards to compose and recite tales of heroism in verse and get largess from rich patrons. There appears to have been little incentive for these bards to propagate ethical values through their poetic compositions. And the stories they selected to balladize were not based on ethical concepts; A glaring instance is Helen who was abducted by the Trojans, refusing to go back to Greece with the conquering Agamemnan as she preferred to continue to live in Troy. A similar reaction in an Indian epic would be like Sita refusing to go back to Rama as she preferred Lanka to a life in Ayodhya. This kind of reaction is unthinkable from a pativrata in India and Indian epics were constructed on a solid ethical base.
On Agamemnan defeating the Trojans, he returns triumphant to Greece. But his wife Clytemnestra is not exactly happy at the forth coming reunion with her husband. So she orders the construction of a platform where the triumphant king would be felicitated but the platform was to be on weak foundation so that it might collapse on Agamemnan ascending it. Fancy Rama or Yudhishtira meeting a situation like this after their triumph in the great wars that were forced on them !
During the Trojan war, when a Trojan leader, unable to bear the pressure on him tried to surrender to the younger brother of Agamemnan, the latter was listening to him with sympathy when Agamemnan came up and upbraided him. And saying “ you take good care of your foes !” he struck down the Trojan who was bowing low to the second in command. Now it would seem uncivil if we remind ourselves of how Rama treated Vibhishana when he surrendered to him before the war. When the wiser among Rama’s counselors advised him to accept the rakshasa as it would be advantageous to Rama’s side, he gives a classic reply that even if the acceptance of Vibhishana was deleterious to his interests, he would still accept him as no one seeking surrender should in any circumstance be rejected.
Characteristics of Indian Epics – The principle of Dharma:
Thus the epics of India are very characteristic of the objective of thoughtful Indian down the centuries-that one’s life should be regulated not by self-interest but by ethical principles whatever the cost. While both the epics have this clear objective before them, they present it in distinctive ways. In the Ramayana there is little preaching; where necessary, a very brief passage expresses the dharmic principle as in the scene where Vibhishana is accepted by Rama. Even Vasishta the family priest of the kings of Ayodhya does not indulge in long speeches on dharma. Later writes realizing the preaching potential of vasishta have composed huge volumes like the Gnanavasishta and Yogavasishta. Again though Valmikis Rama does not preach to Lakshmana (a captive audience in the forest), a writer saw the potential and composed the Rama Gita.
But the absence of Verbal preaching in the Ramayana does not make it deficient as a book of ethics. For the characters themselves with Rama in the lead live the principles effectively often overcoming with great resolution the temptation to break them. This naturally has the effect of putting across the dharmic concepts most effectively.
Dharma in Mahabharata:
In the Mahabharata, on the other hand, every opportunity for the oral preaching of dharma is seized upon with eagerness by many characters. Whole parvas are given over to such sermonizing, lending great strength to the modern critical view that these are later day interpolation.
Anandavardhana, (9th century A.D.) was the first great Indian critic to highlight the fact that the Mahabharata is at once a saastra (scripture) and a kavya (ornate poem). When deemed as a saastra, its major concern is only with the propagation of the four purusarthas or human values, viz. dharma, artha, kama and moksha. The Mahabharata, for the first time, canalizes into a system all the varied ideas of ancient humanist thinkers of the land, and answers the questions: what is the nature of perfect life for man on earth? This universal and spiritual potential of man is the bed rock on which the entire epic structure is reared; and it is never forgotten that it can be grasped only by the adept few.
Vyasa himself is said to have summarized the quintessence of his teaching in the following verse:
“I am shouting at the top of my voice with upraised arms! But, alas, no one listens to me: It is only by way of dharma that one can achieve artha as well as kama. And why don’t you pursue it wholeheartedly?”.
URDHVA BAHUR VIRAMYESHA
NAA KASCHIT SRUNOTI ME
DHARMARTTHASCA KAAMASCA
SA KIMARITHAM NA SEVYATE
The way of wisdom is that the demands of passionate desire and craze for selfish possessions must be regulated by the norms of ethical conduct.
That dream can become a reality only when a keen awareness of the universal moral law that underlines the human situation becomes a reality, and our actions come to be attuned to the demands made by that Eternal Law of life, viz. dharma.
The Theme of Mahabharata:
The Theme of Mahabharata is the drama of the struggle between good and evil. The good ultimately triumphs As poet Subramanya Bharathi says “Like the Serpent swallowing the sun during the eclipse, dharma will be occluded by deceit. Ultimately good will succeed. Evil will lose out”. Sri Aurobindo points out that “the same drama of human life in Mahabharata is also played out at the cosmic plane, embodying the vedic notions of the struggle between the godheads of truth, light and unity the powers of darkness, division and falsehood which is brought out from the spiritual religious and internal into the outer intellectual ,ethical and vital plane. Here it takes the double form of personal and political struggle- the personal conflict between typical and representative personalities embodying the Indian Dharma and others who are embodiments of Asuric egoism and self-interest and misuse of dharma. The personal struggle culminates in a political battle ending in the establishment of a new rule of righteousness and justice, an empire of dharma, uniting warring races substituting the ambitions and arrogance of kings and aristocratic clans with the probity calm, and peace of a just and humane empire. It is the old struggle between the Devas and Asuras, God and Titan but represented in terms of human life “.
In the Mahabharata, Sage Vyasa transmutes the human conflict to a divine plane. The Adi Parva opens with the Earth, being overpopulated and tyrannised by diabolical forces ,approaching Lord Brahma to save her, Brahma directs the gods that they should help Mother Earth by being born there with a part of themselves on earth to contest the evil forces. The gods led by Indra go to Narayana to request Him to incarnate on earth for destroying the evil forces.
The epic lists out the incarnation of both gods and demons on earth, including those who participate by playing minor role. For instance, Jarasandha is the incarnation of Viparachitti and Hiranya Kasyapa is born as Sisupala. Among the major players, Krishna is the incarnation of Narayana. The evil Kali is born as Duryodhana who would ultimately serve the purpose of relieving the Earth of her burden by launching on wicked schemes born out of jealousy and avarice. The emergence of evil forces is again referred to in Adi Parva, Stri Parva and Asrama Vasika Parva. Thus the theme of Mahabharata delineates the recurrent war between the good and evil forces, this time played out on earth. Lord Krishna very clearly states that the destruction of evil which threatens dharma is his ultimate purpose. In this purpose, he is helped by the other Krishna, Draupadi whose disrobing by Duhsasana ultimately precipitates the war. She becomes the important force in Krishna’ plan of arranging the battle of Kurukshetra to cleanse that earth of her burden and of evil forces, through Draupadi repeatedly prodding the Pandavas to join the battle and not to settle for peace.
As mentioned above the epic story recounts the tragic tale of the fratricidal conflict between the two branches of the Kuru dynasty, the political intrigues and betrayals, the massive conflict of the final battle and the triumph of the rightful and righteous heirs to the Kingdom. At the same time we become aware of the cosmic dimension of the conflict (M.B-Verse 25 of Ch.58).
The delineation of evil in the epic – the dramatis personae
It is true that both the great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata deal with the triumph of good over evil. But there is a difference in the delineation of evil in the two epics. In Ramayana, the entire villainy is symbolised practically by one character, Ravana. On the contrary the villainy needed to precipitate the ultimate battle and to make events move in that direction is pumped in by a quartet of evil men in the Mahabharata, the diabolical gang of four. This paper intends to present what they symbolize, how they played their part in the grand cosmic drama enacted on earth, pointing out how each contributed at least one item to the salad of wickedness. The quartet comprises of Duryodhana, brother Duhsasana, his uncle Sakuni, and intimate friend Karna.
Vyasa brings out the contrasting characters of the evil quartret and the Pandavas with two beautiful similes.
DURYODHANO MANYUMAYO MAHA DRUMA:
SKANDHA: KARNA: SAKUNISTASYA SAKHA:
DUHSASANA: PUSHPAPHALE SAMRUDHDE
MULAM RAJA DHRITA RASHTRO MANTSHI ||
YUDHISHTIRO DHARMA MAYO MAHADRUMA:
SKANDHORJUNO BHIMSENOSYA SAKHA:
MADRI SUTAU PUSHPA PHALE SAMRUDHDE
MULAM KRISHNO BRAHMA CA BRAMANASCA ||
(M.B.A.1-1-110.iii)
“Duryodhana is a turbulent tree full of anger Karna is the trunk of the tree. Sakuni is the branch. Duhshsana is fully ripened fruit. Indiscreet Dhritarashtira is the root” On the contrary “Yudhistra is a righteous tree. Arjuna is the trunk. Bhima is the branch. Fully ripened fruits are Nakula and Sahadeva, Krishna, and the Brahmins are the roots”
Let us see in a nutshell what each of the quartet represents :-
(1) Sakuni is the brain behind the quartet. He has a complicated brain, which produces all the well planned conspiracies in the epic. His strong point is his perfect understanding of the psychology of the individual. He plays like a competent musician on a lyre, on the proclivities of each individual, whether it is the jealousy and egoistic arrogance of Duryodhana or the vacillating fascination of Yudhishtira for gambling. Hence his plots, based on his understanding how his victims will act under specific circumstances succeed in full measure. In any given situation he would rather like to outwit his enemies through brain work than to vanquish them in battle.
(2) Karna is the other pole to Sakuni. He prefers battling with the foes rather than plotting to bring about their down fall. He is very proud of his mastery over archery and hence wants to depend on armed conflict rather than conspiratorial plots. His munificence and chivalry is only a mask for his innate wickedness.
(3) Duryodhana; He is the natural leader of the evil quartet. He is strongly motivated by the twin motives of the love of power and the hatred of Pandavas born out of Jealousy. He is very strong in his resolve; he is fearless obstinate, and tenacious. Undoubtedly he is a great warrior. But his lust for power and hatred of Pandavas make him totally blind to the concept of Dharma. He is so steeped in ego that he rejects the wise counsel of elders like Bhishma, Vidura, and Drona. He is never discouraged, never embarrassed, dismisses all sane counsels as born out of fear of Pandavas and clings to his path of adharma.
(4) Duhsasana. There seems to be no special qualities in him except a vile servitude to Duryodhana. One feature that stands out in his character is his total lack of ethical sense which makes him an ideal assistant to Duryodhana to carry out all his nefarious intentions, without any qualms or reservation at the bidding of Duryodhana. He proceeds to perform the most heinous act in the entire epic viz the disrobing of Draupadi.
There are several episodes in the epic which bring out the qualities of the evil quartet to the fore.
While many are familiar with the Vyasa Bharata, attempts are made in this paper to draw reference to the famous Tamil Version, the Mahabharata by Villiputhurar, popularly known as Villi.
The Symbolism in the Mahabharata :
At a symbolic level we can say that the Pandavas represent the daivi sampat, and the Kauvaras represent the asura sampat. While Arjuna represents the Jeeva, the other four Pandavas represent the four purusharthas : Yudhishtira representing the ethical values (Dharma), Bhima representing material values (artha), Nakula the social values (Kama), and Sahadeva the spritual values (Moksha). Draupadi symbolizes intellect depending on nothing in the world except the Supreme Self. They are led by the Divine Self of Krishna to the ultimate Goal.
Among the evil quartet “Dushtacatushtayam” Duryodhana is the embodiment of a mind filled with impurities, Karna is the embodiment of exaggerated egoism. Sakuni is the embodiment of falsehood. Duhsasana is the embodiment of evil servitude.
The incidence of Pandavas setting forth to build a new capital at Khandava prastha represents the mind going to explore the unconscious (represented by a verdant forest) rather than feeling contented with what only the conscious mind shows on the phenomenal world as done by the Kauravas led by the evil quartet. The burning of the forest by Krishna (Narayana) and Arjuna (Nara) represent the effort by the self, aided by Divine grace burning out the vasanas leading to the spiritual effulgence of a new city.
The evil in the world never learns. It is symbolized by Duryodhana and the Kauravas going to the forest, while Pandavas were undergoing Vanavas. The evil forces go to the forest to ridicule the pure ones and to parade their wealth. But to their dismay they are defeated and captured by Chitra ratha, the gandharva king, representing dharma’s intervention and are to be ultimately rescued by the Pandavas. Duryodhana, full of shame, wants to fast unto death. But the demons from the nether world rise up to him and assure him that as their chosen representative on earth he is bound to succeed. Thus emboldened, Duryodhana returns to his evil ways. It only shows that evil in human personality can be apparently conquered and brought to a state of degradation but it is hard to keep it suppressed, because it has its roots in the pervasive evil atmosphere in the universe. When you want to do something negative you get lot of promised help.
His arrogance prods him towards his own destruction. When Sage Maitreya gives him advice to make up with the Pandavas, he ignores it and pats his thigh leading to the curse by Maitreya.
The seeds of the war are thrown when Duryodhana gets caught in an embarrassing situation in the Hall of Magic after the Rajasuya Yagna. Looking at him Draupadi in the balcony roars with laughter which lights up a resolve for revenge in his heart. Symbolically when intellect begins to laugh at the failures of a wicked mind, the negative forces get angry. The evil forces never like to be openly observed and ridiculed. So they launch an all out offensive to get the intellect demeaned.
Even when Pandavas are living an austere life in forest, the evil nature of Duryodhana wants their destruction. Since his previous attempt in a raid ended in disgrace for him, he does not want to openly trouble them but he makes a diabolical move. When the angry sage Durvasa comes to him he feeds him sumptuously. When the highly satisfied sage Durvasa asks him for a boon, his desire for causing misery to his foes overcomes his desire to obtain something good for him. He requests Durvasa to go to the forest hamlet of the Pandavas after they have had their food, knowing fully well the Akshaya Paatra of Draupadi will not produce any food after they have had their supper. But when Krishna intervenes to eat the residual leaf left on the vessel at the time when Durvasa had gone to bathe, Durvasa’s belly becomes full. He could not take any more food. Thus Duryodhana’s plan to make the angry sage’s curse visit Pandavas is foiled (M.B. Vana Parva 363 – I)
Here Durvasa represents the rajasic forces, Duryodhana the tamasic energy and the Pandavas the satwic energy. The vessel represents the unconscious mind (Citta) and the residual leaf represents the good samskaras. When it is offered to the supreme self the tamasic and rajasic forces fail.
The next incident in the drama occurs when Arjuna and Duryodhana visit Lord Krishna to request for his help in the war efforts. The incident shows even when choice for redemption is available, the evil mind opts only for the lower material benefits. Before the war when Krishna offers either himself without any army or his army without him, Arjuna chooses the unarmed Krishna while Duryodhana is happy with the Dwaraka Army. Thus the satvic recognises the glory of God as “upadhirahita” without any adjuncts and chooses Him. He puts the Chariot of life in his hand. But Duryodhana’s evil mind, unable to comprehend the glory of God, chooses the army, the material alternative.
In the Udyoga Parva, during Krishna’s visit as the envoy, despite the recognition of Krishna as God by all around him Duryodana’s lower evil self remains unmoved. He refuses to see the reality unfolding around him. His arrogance and pride even prompts him to attempt to imprison Krishna. Thus till the very end the evil forces remain blind to the supreme self present before them.
Among the gang of four, Karna is a special case. Rejected by the Mother at birth, brought up by the charioteer, learning archery by deceit from Parasurama and then getting cursed by him, ridiculed by Arjuna and Draupadi, remaining brave with unshakable faith in his valour and steadfastly loyal to Duryodhana, he is a bundle of contradictions. Even the austerity in service and forbearance he has shown in serving Parasurama, is born out of rajas and tamas. His heroism is meant to serve the forces of darkness and hence he gets cursed by his guru.
In the drama of the Mahabharata, Karna symbolizes Asmita or supreme egoism. Separated from the purusharthas, the Pandavas, ego becomes a destructive force. Thus a Vyakti with ahankara finds comfort among evil forces and does their biddings with relish.
Episodial references and the character Analysis – the Gang of Four
Now let us see the beautiful sculpturing of the character of the gang of four and the interplay of the forces in the Mahabharata.
I. DURYODHANA:
The very birth of Duryodhana was preceded by evil omens. Rattled by this, the blind king asks Vidura what the evil omens portend. Vidura replies that the child born would bring destruction to the entire race and advises him to put an end to the child. Overcome by his attachment to the son Dhritarashtra ignores the sage counsel and nurtures Duryodhana in his evil ways and Duryodhana grows up as an evil incarnate . In the words of Vyasa
TASYA DHARMAADAPETASYA
PAAPANI PARIPASYATAH
MOHAADAISVARYA LOBHAACCHA
PAAPAMATI RAJAAYATA :II
(Mahabharatha 127.26)
“Young Duryodhana grew up as a rake, swerving from the path of Dharma, interested only in sinful acts, always of a confused mind, ever wanting to dominate others. His mind was always fascinated by evil. (Mahabharata Aadi Parva 127 :26)
He found an ideal partner and friend in Karna who reflected his own evil mind.
SPARDHA MAANASTU PAARTHENA
SOOTAPUTROTYA MARSHANAH
DURYODHANAM SAMAASRTTYA
SOVAMANYATA PAANDAVAAN
“Filled with envy and hatred Charioteer’s son - Karna joined evil Duryodhana in heaping insults on the pandavas” ( Aadi Parva 131:12)
Duryodhanas’ hatred of his cousins even makes him do chivalrous acts. On seeing the valorous young Karna throwing a challenge at Arjuna, only to be rejected as an unequal soota putra, he rejects any difference in birth and declares that only valour will merit honour. Eventhough born out of negative motive this crowning of Karna by Duryodhana shows him in good light (Villi 2.67 to 71). However there has always been the potentiality for evil in him. The conspiracy to kill Pandavas at Varanavata is hatched by his evil brain with tacit consent from the blind king even before Sakuni comes into the scene (Villi 2.108) Sakuni only nurtures the poisonous plant to grow into a huge tree.
Duryodhana’s mental make up is such that it could not stomach any failure. When he could not win the hand of Draupadi in her swayamvara, as he failed to bend the bow to hit the target, he does not accept the defeat gracefully. Instead he instigates the other kings to rise against the young ‘brahmin’ Arjuna in disguise who has won the contest (Villi 5.59).
His arrogance leads him on a self-destruct mode. When Vidura feeds Krishna in his house, Duryodana flies into fury and accuses him of being a whore’s son, saying nothing better could be expected from him. This outrage leads to Vidura to breaking his bow (Villi 27-126) which is one of the causes for Duryodhana’s defeat. At the moment of reckoning, Duryodhana shows some grace, even though it is also born out of his egoism. When Yudhishtira requests Duryodhana to accept the throne and have command over all of them, Duryodhana refuses, saying that when his entire kith and kin have given up their lives on his behalf, it is demeaning for him to continue to live out of Yudhishtira’s compassion (Villi 46.160). However, his deceitful nature continues to be there until the last hour. He lies to Bhima as to where the center of his life is situated to gain an undue advantage over his foe in single combat (Villi 46.175). The only occasion where he feels remorseful over the acts of evil is when Aswatthama shows him the severed heads of the Pandavas’ kid-children.
SAKUNI:
Sakuni the evil genius never gives up his venom even for a moment. He never allows Duryodhana’s hostility to diminish in intensity. When Duryodhana starts to plan for the reception of the envoy Sri Krishna, Sakuni scolds him and stops him from arranging that (Villi 2.7.70) He comes out as a thoroughly evil, graceless being, with not even an iota of positivism in him. He, alongwith Duhsasana among the quartet, does not seem to possess any positive or pleasant facet to his character. On the 18th day, even after the entire Kaurava army is destroyed he still goads Duryodhana to fight on (Villi 46.91). He lives his deceitful life to the end fitting the description of him by the Poet, as “the snake like Sakuni”, “Sakuni, unequalled in deceit”. (Villi 24.37).
Karna:
The character of Karna is striking more so in Villi than in Vyasa. Like Milton creating the anti-hero in Satan almost equal to God, Villi has created Karna as the greatest anti hero in Mahabharatha. Due to various factors, this anti-hero fails in critical times.
His gratitude is of the highest order. He continues to be loyal to Duryodhana even after he learnt that the Pandavas are his siblings and his defection to their side would get him the crown. All of Krishna’s wiles and magical powers get used only against him. This itself underscores his valour.
However great may be his loyalty and munificence his innate nature is evil. “Like a person painting the outer wall of his house beautifully but keeping his interiors full of filth”, Karna’s munificence is only an external show. This beautiful simile by Villi aptly brings out the character of Karna. Even when Duryodhana’s resolve, at rare moments, seems to waver he offers him bad counsel and alongwith Sakuni, fans his jealousy and leads him on to evil ways.
An interesting addition by Villi is the episode when Kunti meets Karna. After agreeing that he will not use the Nagastra more than once on Arjuna, and he would not kill any of the other Pandavas, Karna requests Kunti that when he falls on the battle field, she should proclaim to the world that he is her son and suckle him publicly. Kunti actually does it. (Villi 43-253-258). This is a very poignant scene which shows how much torn between his affection for his brothers and loyalty to Duryodhana is Karna.
There is a very interesting improvement by Villi in the scene of Karna’s death. Even when Karna is hit by the arrows of Arjuna, he does not die. He lies on the battle field severely wounded. Krishna realizes that he is protected by his punya. So taking the shape of a Brahmin, Krishna begs Karna of his punya. Using the blood flowing from his wounded chest as water, Karna offers all his Punya to the Brahmin. Then Krishna gives the Viswaroopa Darshan to Karna, the only instance when the Lord gave Viswaroopa Darshan without being solicited – a touching end.
Karna, unlike Duryodana and Duhsasana, has great shrewdness. When Pandavas were doing ajnata vasa in Virata Desa, Duryodhana’s spies bring the news that the powerful Keechaka was killed due to his infatuation with a servant woman. Karna immediately comes out with the idea that if they invade Viratadesa to lift the cattle, Pandavas in their effort to assist the King to recover his herds will be flushed out of their hiding. This was a bright idea. It is another matter that they could not succeed in the mission as the hiding period has ended just on the previous day. (Villi 22.3).
Whatever may be Karna’s great valour and munificence, he comes out as a villain owing to his innate evil quality, jealousy and vanity. Even though he gets vanquished thrice by Arjuna single handedly at the battle in Virata desa, inviting derisive comments from Aswatthama, his vanity never leaves him (Villi 22-75-78). When Bhishma advises Duryodhana to seek peace as they are no match for the Pandavas, Karna vainly boasts of his valour and superior archery and belittles the grand sire. Thus, he, to a great extent is responsible for the false-sense of security in Duryodhana.
The Sarga on the plane for the game of dice: the epitome of the evilness of the quartet.
The wickedness of the evil-gang of four is delineated in its completeness in the chapter on the conspiracy to wage a deceitful game of dice. It is beautifully described in Sarga 11 of Villi Bharatham, where each character is shown up in his true light.
Karna starts the discussion by fuming and fretting at the good fortune of the Pandavas. Sakuni, the evil genius, is happy that all their minds are one in this respect. While Duhsasana gives vent to his wrath on the rise of Pandavas, Duryodhana says that as one has to remove the thorn before it grows into a mighty tree, Pandavas should be destroyed before they became stronger. This should be accomplished by war or by deceit; ways do not matter, only the end matters, Duhsasana, recalls the undue primacy given to Krishna ahead of all of them and the derisive laughter of Draupadi over Duryodhana’s discomfiture in the hall of magic during Raja Suya. This sets fire to the destructive fury of their minds. They agree that as Krishna is away at the moment this is the right moment, but what means to choose? ( Villi 11.12-16).
Karna among the quartet, is the only one who prefers war to deceit, not because of his dislike of adharma but because of his immense faith in his own invincibility. However the choice is made by the one person there with a very practical mind. As a matter of fact, Sakuni declares, even if they take several more births they will not be able to defeat the Pandavas He points out, to their discomfiture, as to how they lost out to the Pandavas in all their previous encounters. He advocates deceit as the only possible way, and also comes out with the full details of the proposed game of deceit. The other three immediately fall in line. (Villi 11.26 – 38).
When Yudhistira arrives, he is invited to the game Sakuni knows the psychology of the individual. He is well aware that Yudhishtira has a natural inclination for gambling. By clervely suggesting that is only a harmless pastime of the royalty, a game for the brave and finally prodding his vanity, Sakuni is able to make Yudhistira agree for the game. Consequently Yudhistra loses everything, including the freedom of himself, his siblings and worst of all, Draupadi also.
The villainy of Karna comes forth here when the loud voice of Vikarna is raised against this injustice. Karna angrily shouts him down (villi 11.2.39-24). Even after wistnessing the miraculous scene of Draupadi’s honour being saved by the Lord’s grace, even after witnessing the terrible oath of Bhima, the evil quartet does not learn. Duryodhana invites her to sit on his lap leading to her terrible oath.
When the frightened King offers the kingdom back to the Pandavas, even the Kauravas are silent; Sakuni fumes and accuses the king of “fondling the tiger by caressing its tail” (Villi 11-265).
This is followed by the second game of dice and the exit of the Pandavas to the forest.
(It is not suggested here that there is a clear binary division between that good and evil characters in the Mahabharata. In fact, in every character there is an admixture of ‘good’ and evil in certain measure. Whatever quality is predominant in a character is taken here to epitomize his nature).
Conclusion
Thus the entire drama of Mahabharata reflects the pitting of evil forces against the forces of good. The evil quartet represents the forces of wickedness, each one has his own motivation but all synergise their strengths to achieve their common goal of defeating and defaming the Pandavas, the representatives of good. Ultimately evil is destroyed and good triumphs.
Finally Vyasa himself says “one should never abandon virtue for the sake of pleasure, out of fear or because of greed, nor even for the sake of life itself Virtue is everlasting, but joy and misery are not, the living being is eternal, but the cause of his existence here is impermanent (MB 18.5.09.50).
This is the lesson we learn from the tragic lives of the evil quartet in the Mahabharata.
We conclude with the words of Will Durant, the great historian, “this poem with logic of structure and splendor of language, in-depth of portraiture and fidelity to be essence of things, is distinguished by fine feelings, a lofty idealization of woman and man and a vigorous – sometimes realistic representation of life. To an Indian, they are not mere stories; they are a gallery of ideal characters upon whom he may mould his conduct; they are a repertory of the traditions, philosophy and theology of his people ; in a sense they are sacred scriptures to be read (W.Durant story of civilisation I-570)
Epics of India:
Itihasa, originated and grown in the context of ancient Indian civilization is very different from the European epic. The modern concept of history, imported to India from the west, has no alignment with Ithihasa. The use of chronology in terms of ordered sequence of intentions and actions rather than in the framework of dates and years is characteristic of Indian thought. In such a view history becomes infused with a purpose higher than merely to record the rise and fall of dynasties and succession of wars, which mention the chronicles of mere men. Noble qualities made them brave manfully with the work of mishaps.
Indian Epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata have a very different objective from that with which Homer’s epics were composed. It was the custom in Homer’s days for bards to compose and recite tales of heroism in verse and get largess from rich patrons. There appears to have been little incentive for these bards to propagate ethical values through their poetic compositions. And the stories they selected to balladize were not based on ethical concepts; A glaring instance is Helen who was abducted by the Trojans, refusing to go back to Greece with the conquering Agamemnan as she preferred to continue to live in Troy. A similar reaction in an Indian epic would be like Sita refusing to go back to Rama as she preferred Lanka to a life in Ayodhya. This kind of reaction is unthinkable from a pativrata in India and Indian epics were constructed on a solid ethical base.
On Agamemnan defeating the Trojans, he returns triumphant to Greece. But his wife Clytemnestra is not exactly happy at the forth coming reunion with her husband. So she orders the construction of a platform where the triumphant king would be felicitated but the platform was to be on weak foundation so that it might collapse on Agamemnan ascending it. Fancy Rama or Yudhishtira meeting a situation like this after their triumph in the great wars that were forced on them !
During the Trojan war, when a Trojan leader, unable to bear the pressure on him tried to surrender to the younger brother of Agamemnan, the latter was listening to him with sympathy when Agamemnan came up and upbraided him. And saying “ you take good care of your foes !” he struck down the Trojan who was bowing low to the second in command. Now it would seem uncivil if we remind ourselves of how Rama treated Vibhishana when he surrendered to him before the war. When the wiser among Rama’s counselors advised him to accept the rakshasa as it would be advantageous to Rama’s side, he gives a classic reply that even if the acceptance of Vibhishana was deleterious to his interests, he would still accept him as no one seeking surrender should in any circumstance be rejected.
Characteristics of Indian Epics – The principle of Dharma:
Thus the epics of India are very characteristic of the objective of thoughtful Indian down the centuries-that one’s life should be regulated not by self-interest but by ethical principles whatever the cost. While both the epics have this clear objective before them, they present it in distinctive ways. In the Ramayana there is little preaching; where necessary, a very brief passage expresses the dharmic principle as in the scene where Vibhishana is accepted by Rama. Even Vasishta the family priest of the kings of Ayodhya does not indulge in long speeches on dharma. Later writes realizing the preaching potential of vasishta have composed huge volumes like the Gnanavasishta and Yogavasishta. Again though Valmikis Rama does not preach to Lakshmana (a captive audience in the forest), a writer saw the potential and composed the Rama Gita.
But the absence of Verbal preaching in the Ramayana does not make it deficient as a book of ethics. For the characters themselves with Rama in the lead live the principles effectively often overcoming with great resolution the temptation to break them. This naturally has the effect of putting across the dharmic concepts most effectively.
Dharma in Mahabharata:
In the Mahabharata, on the other hand, every opportunity for the oral preaching of dharma is seized upon with eagerness by many characters. Whole parvas are given over to such sermonizing, lending great strength to the modern critical view that these are later day interpolation.
Anandavardhana, (9th century A.D.) was the first great Indian critic to highlight the fact that the Mahabharata is at once a saastra (scripture) and a kavya (ornate poem). When deemed as a saastra, its major concern is only with the propagation of the four purusarthas or human values, viz. dharma, artha, kama and moksha. The Mahabharata, for the first time, canalizes into a system all the varied ideas of ancient humanist thinkers of the land, and answers the questions: what is the nature of perfect life for man on earth? This universal and spiritual potential of man is the bed rock on which the entire epic structure is reared; and it is never forgotten that it can be grasped only by the adept few.
Vyasa himself is said to have summarized the quintessence of his teaching in the following verse:
“I am shouting at the top of my voice with upraised arms! But, alas, no one listens to me: It is only by way of dharma that one can achieve artha as well as kama. And why don’t you pursue it wholeheartedly?”.
URDHVA BAHUR VIRAMYESHA
NAA KASCHIT SRUNOTI ME
DHARMARTTHASCA KAAMASCA
SA KIMARITHAM NA SEVYATE
The way of wisdom is that the demands of passionate desire and craze for selfish possessions must be regulated by the norms of ethical conduct.
That dream can become a reality only when a keen awareness of the universal moral law that underlines the human situation becomes a reality, and our actions come to be attuned to the demands made by that Eternal Law of life, viz. dharma.
The Theme of Mahabharata:
The Theme of Mahabharata is the drama of the struggle between good and evil. The good ultimately triumphs As poet Subramanya Bharathi says “Like the Serpent swallowing the sun during the eclipse, dharma will be occluded by deceit. Ultimately good will succeed. Evil will lose out”. Sri Aurobindo points out that “the same drama of human life in Mahabharata is also played out at the cosmic plane, embodying the vedic notions of the struggle between the godheads of truth, light and unity the powers of darkness, division and falsehood which is brought out from the spiritual religious and internal into the outer intellectual ,ethical and vital plane. Here it takes the double form of personal and political struggle- the personal conflict between typical and representative personalities embodying the Indian Dharma and others who are embodiments of Asuric egoism and self-interest and misuse of dharma. The personal struggle culminates in a political battle ending in the establishment of a new rule of righteousness and justice, an empire of dharma, uniting warring races substituting the ambitions and arrogance of kings and aristocratic clans with the probity calm, and peace of a just and humane empire. It is the old struggle between the Devas and Asuras, God and Titan but represented in terms of human life “.
In the Mahabharata, Sage Vyasa transmutes the human conflict to a divine plane. The Adi Parva opens with the Earth, being overpopulated and tyrannised by diabolical forces ,approaching Lord Brahma to save her, Brahma directs the gods that they should help Mother Earth by being born there with a part of themselves on earth to contest the evil forces. The gods led by Indra go to Narayana to request Him to incarnate on earth for destroying the evil forces.
The epic lists out the incarnation of both gods and demons on earth, including those who participate by playing minor role. For instance, Jarasandha is the incarnation of Viparachitti and Hiranya Kasyapa is born as Sisupala. Among the major players, Krishna is the incarnation of Narayana. The evil Kali is born as Duryodhana who would ultimately serve the purpose of relieving the Earth of her burden by launching on wicked schemes born out of jealousy and avarice. The emergence of evil forces is again referred to in Adi Parva, Stri Parva and Asrama Vasika Parva. Thus the theme of Mahabharata delineates the recurrent war between the good and evil forces, this time played out on earth. Lord Krishna very clearly states that the destruction of evil which threatens dharma is his ultimate purpose. In this purpose, he is helped by the other Krishna, Draupadi whose disrobing by Duhsasana ultimately precipitates the war. She becomes the important force in Krishna’ plan of arranging the battle of Kurukshetra to cleanse that earth of her burden and of evil forces, through Draupadi repeatedly prodding the Pandavas to join the battle and not to settle for peace.
As mentioned above the epic story recounts the tragic tale of the fratricidal conflict between the two branches of the Kuru dynasty, the political intrigues and betrayals, the massive conflict of the final battle and the triumph of the rightful and righteous heirs to the Kingdom. At the same time we become aware of the cosmic dimension of the conflict (M.B-Verse 25 of Ch.58).
The delineation of evil in the epic – the dramatis personae
It is true that both the great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata deal with the triumph of good over evil. But there is a difference in the delineation of evil in the two epics. In Ramayana, the entire villainy is symbolised practically by one character, Ravana. On the contrary the villainy needed to precipitate the ultimate battle and to make events move in that direction is pumped in by a quartet of evil men in the Mahabharata, the diabolical gang of four. This paper intends to present what they symbolize, how they played their part in the grand cosmic drama enacted on earth, pointing out how each contributed at least one item to the salad of wickedness. The quartet comprises of Duryodhana, brother Duhsasana, his uncle Sakuni, and intimate friend Karna.
Vyasa brings out the contrasting characters of the evil quartret and the Pandavas with two beautiful similes.
DURYODHANO MANYUMAYO MAHA DRUMA:
SKANDHA: KARNA: SAKUNISTASYA SAKHA:
DUHSASANA: PUSHPAPHALE SAMRUDHDE
MULAM RAJA DHRITA RASHTRO MANTSHI ||
YUDHISHTIRO DHARMA MAYO MAHADRUMA:
SKANDHORJUNO BHIMSENOSYA SAKHA:
MADRI SUTAU PUSHPA PHALE SAMRUDHDE
MULAM KRISHNO BRAHMA CA BRAMANASCA ||
(M.B.A.1-1-110.iii)
“Duryodhana is a turbulent tree full of anger Karna is the trunk of the tree. Sakuni is the branch. Duhshsana is fully ripened fruit. Indiscreet Dhritarashtira is the root” On the contrary “Yudhistra is a righteous tree. Arjuna is the trunk. Bhima is the branch. Fully ripened fruits are Nakula and Sahadeva, Krishna, and the Brahmins are the roots”
Let us see in a nutshell what each of the quartet represents :-
(1) Sakuni is the brain behind the quartet. He has a complicated brain, which produces all the well planned conspiracies in the epic. His strong point is his perfect understanding of the psychology of the individual. He plays like a competent musician on a lyre, on the proclivities of each individual, whether it is the jealousy and egoistic arrogance of Duryodhana or the vacillating fascination of Yudhishtira for gambling. Hence his plots, based on his understanding how his victims will act under specific circumstances succeed in full measure. In any given situation he would rather like to outwit his enemies through brain work than to vanquish them in battle.
(2) Karna is the other pole to Sakuni. He prefers battling with the foes rather than plotting to bring about their down fall. He is very proud of his mastery over archery and hence wants to depend on armed conflict rather than conspiratorial plots. His munificence and chivalry is only a mask for his innate wickedness.
(3) Duryodhana; He is the natural leader of the evil quartet. He is strongly motivated by the twin motives of the love of power and the hatred of Pandavas born out of Jealousy. He is very strong in his resolve; he is fearless obstinate, and tenacious. Undoubtedly he is a great warrior. But his lust for power and hatred of Pandavas make him totally blind to the concept of Dharma. He is so steeped in ego that he rejects the wise counsel of elders like Bhishma, Vidura, and Drona. He is never discouraged, never embarrassed, dismisses all sane counsels as born out of fear of Pandavas and clings to his path of adharma.
(4) Duhsasana. There seems to be no special qualities in him except a vile servitude to Duryodhana. One feature that stands out in his character is his total lack of ethical sense which makes him an ideal assistant to Duryodhana to carry out all his nefarious intentions, without any qualms or reservation at the bidding of Duryodhana. He proceeds to perform the most heinous act in the entire epic viz the disrobing of Draupadi.
There are several episodes in the epic which bring out the qualities of the evil quartet to the fore.
While many are familiar with the Vyasa Bharata, attempts are made in this paper to draw reference to the famous Tamil Version, the Mahabharata by Villiputhurar, popularly known as Villi.
The Symbolism in the Mahabharata :
At a symbolic level we can say that the Pandavas represent the daivi sampat, and the Kauvaras represent the asura sampat. While Arjuna represents the Jeeva, the other four Pandavas represent the four purusharthas : Yudhishtira representing the ethical values (Dharma), Bhima representing material values (artha), Nakula the social values (Kama), and Sahadeva the spritual values (Moksha). Draupadi symbolizes intellect depending on nothing in the world except the Supreme Self. They are led by the Divine Self of Krishna to the ultimate Goal.
Among the evil quartet “Dushtacatushtayam” Duryodhana is the embodiment of a mind filled with impurities, Karna is the embodiment of exaggerated egoism. Sakuni is the embodiment of falsehood. Duhsasana is the embodiment of evil servitude.
The incidence of Pandavas setting forth to build a new capital at Khandava prastha represents the mind going to explore the unconscious (represented by a verdant forest) rather than feeling contented with what only the conscious mind shows on the phenomenal world as done by the Kauravas led by the evil quartet. The burning of the forest by Krishna (Narayana) and Arjuna (Nara) represent the effort by the self, aided by Divine grace burning out the vasanas leading to the spiritual effulgence of a new city.
The evil in the world never learns. It is symbolized by Duryodhana and the Kauravas going to the forest, while Pandavas were undergoing Vanavas. The evil forces go to the forest to ridicule the pure ones and to parade their wealth. But to their dismay they are defeated and captured by Chitra ratha, the gandharva king, representing dharma’s intervention and are to be ultimately rescued by the Pandavas. Duryodhana, full of shame, wants to fast unto death. But the demons from the nether world rise up to him and assure him that as their chosen representative on earth he is bound to succeed. Thus emboldened, Duryodhana returns to his evil ways. It only shows that evil in human personality can be apparently conquered and brought to a state of degradation but it is hard to keep it suppressed, because it has its roots in the pervasive evil atmosphere in the universe. When you want to do something negative you get lot of promised help.
His arrogance prods him towards his own destruction. When Sage Maitreya gives him advice to make up with the Pandavas, he ignores it and pats his thigh leading to the curse by Maitreya.
The seeds of the war are thrown when Duryodhana gets caught in an embarrassing situation in the Hall of Magic after the Rajasuya Yagna. Looking at him Draupadi in the balcony roars with laughter which lights up a resolve for revenge in his heart. Symbolically when intellect begins to laugh at the failures of a wicked mind, the negative forces get angry. The evil forces never like to be openly observed and ridiculed. So they launch an all out offensive to get the intellect demeaned.
Even when Pandavas are living an austere life in forest, the evil nature of Duryodhana wants their destruction. Since his previous attempt in a raid ended in disgrace for him, he does not want to openly trouble them but he makes a diabolical move. When the angry sage Durvasa comes to him he feeds him sumptuously. When the highly satisfied sage Durvasa asks him for a boon, his desire for causing misery to his foes overcomes his desire to obtain something good for him. He requests Durvasa to go to the forest hamlet of the Pandavas after they have had their food, knowing fully well the Akshaya Paatra of Draupadi will not produce any food after they have had their supper. But when Krishna intervenes to eat the residual leaf left on the vessel at the time when Durvasa had gone to bathe, Durvasa’s belly becomes full. He could not take any more food. Thus Duryodhana’s plan to make the angry sage’s curse visit Pandavas is foiled (M.B. Vana Parva 363 – I)
Here Durvasa represents the rajasic forces, Duryodhana the tamasic energy and the Pandavas the satwic energy. The vessel represents the unconscious mind (Citta) and the residual leaf represents the good samskaras. When it is offered to the supreme self the tamasic and rajasic forces fail.
The next incident in the drama occurs when Arjuna and Duryodhana visit Lord Krishna to request for his help in the war efforts. The incident shows even when choice for redemption is available, the evil mind opts only for the lower material benefits. Before the war when Krishna offers either himself without any army or his army without him, Arjuna chooses the unarmed Krishna while Duryodhana is happy with the Dwaraka Army. Thus the satvic recognises the glory of God as “upadhirahita” without any adjuncts and chooses Him. He puts the Chariot of life in his hand. But Duryodhana’s evil mind, unable to comprehend the glory of God, chooses the army, the material alternative.
In the Udyoga Parva, during Krishna’s visit as the envoy, despite the recognition of Krishna as God by all around him Duryodana’s lower evil self remains unmoved. He refuses to see the reality unfolding around him. His arrogance and pride even prompts him to attempt to imprison Krishna. Thus till the very end the evil forces remain blind to the supreme self present before them.
Among the gang of four, Karna is a special case. Rejected by the Mother at birth, brought up by the charioteer, learning archery by deceit from Parasurama and then getting cursed by him, ridiculed by Arjuna and Draupadi, remaining brave with unshakable faith in his valour and steadfastly loyal to Duryodhana, he is a bundle of contradictions. Even the austerity in service and forbearance he has shown in serving Parasurama, is born out of rajas and tamas. His heroism is meant to serve the forces of darkness and hence he gets cursed by his guru.
In the drama of the Mahabharata, Karna symbolizes Asmita or supreme egoism. Separated from the purusharthas, the Pandavas, ego becomes a destructive force. Thus a Vyakti with ahankara finds comfort among evil forces and does their biddings with relish.
Episodial references and the character Analysis – the Gang of Four
Now let us see the beautiful sculpturing of the character of the gang of four and the interplay of the forces in the Mahabharata.
I. DURYODHANA:
The very birth of Duryodhana was preceded by evil omens. Rattled by this, the blind king asks Vidura what the evil omens portend. Vidura replies that the child born would bring destruction to the entire race and advises him to put an end to the child. Overcome by his attachment to the son Dhritarashtra ignores the sage counsel and nurtures Duryodhana in his evil ways and Duryodhana grows up as an evil incarnate . In the words of Vyasa
TASYA DHARMAADAPETASYA
PAAPANI PARIPASYATAH
MOHAADAISVARYA LOBHAACCHA
PAAPAMATI RAJAAYATA :II
(Mahabharatha 127.26)
“Young Duryodhana grew up as a rake, swerving from the path of Dharma, interested only in sinful acts, always of a confused mind, ever wanting to dominate others. His mind was always fascinated by evil. (Mahabharata Aadi Parva 127 :26)
He found an ideal partner and friend in Karna who reflected his own evil mind.
SPARDHA MAANASTU PAARTHENA
SOOTAPUTROTYA MARSHANAH
DURYODHANAM SAMAASRTTYA
SOVAMANYATA PAANDAVAAN
“Filled with envy and hatred Charioteer’s son - Karna joined evil Duryodhana in heaping insults on the pandavas” ( Aadi Parva 131:12)
Duryodhanas’ hatred of his cousins even makes him do chivalrous acts. On seeing the valorous young Karna throwing a challenge at Arjuna, only to be rejected as an unequal soota putra, he rejects any difference in birth and declares that only valour will merit honour. Eventhough born out of negative motive this crowning of Karna by Duryodhana shows him in good light (Villi 2.67 to 71). However there has always been the potentiality for evil in him. The conspiracy to kill Pandavas at Varanavata is hatched by his evil brain with tacit consent from the blind king even before Sakuni comes into the scene (Villi 2.108) Sakuni only nurtures the poisonous plant to grow into a huge tree.
Duryodhana’s mental make up is such that it could not stomach any failure. When he could not win the hand of Draupadi in her swayamvara, as he failed to bend the bow to hit the target, he does not accept the defeat gracefully. Instead he instigates the other kings to rise against the young ‘brahmin’ Arjuna in disguise who has won the contest (Villi 5.59).
His arrogance leads him on a self-destruct mode. When Vidura feeds Krishna in his house, Duryodana flies into fury and accuses him of being a whore’s son, saying nothing better could be expected from him. This outrage leads to Vidura to breaking his bow (Villi 27-126) which is one of the causes for Duryodhana’s defeat. At the moment of reckoning, Duryodhana shows some grace, even though it is also born out of his egoism. When Yudhishtira requests Duryodhana to accept the throne and have command over all of them, Duryodhana refuses, saying that when his entire kith and kin have given up their lives on his behalf, it is demeaning for him to continue to live out of Yudhishtira’s compassion (Villi 46.160). However, his deceitful nature continues to be there until the last hour. He lies to Bhima as to where the center of his life is situated to gain an undue advantage over his foe in single combat (Villi 46.175). The only occasion where he feels remorseful over the acts of evil is when Aswatthama shows him the severed heads of the Pandavas’ kid-children.
SAKUNI:
Sakuni the evil genius never gives up his venom even for a moment. He never allows Duryodhana’s hostility to diminish in intensity. When Duryodhana starts to plan for the reception of the envoy Sri Krishna, Sakuni scolds him and stops him from arranging that (Villi 2.7.70) He comes out as a thoroughly evil, graceless being, with not even an iota of positivism in him. He, alongwith Duhsasana among the quartet, does not seem to possess any positive or pleasant facet to his character. On the 18th day, even after the entire Kaurava army is destroyed he still goads Duryodhana to fight on (Villi 46.91). He lives his deceitful life to the end fitting the description of him by the Poet, as “the snake like Sakuni”, “Sakuni, unequalled in deceit”. (Villi 24.37).
Karna:
The character of Karna is striking more so in Villi than in Vyasa. Like Milton creating the anti-hero in Satan almost equal to God, Villi has created Karna as the greatest anti hero in Mahabharatha. Due to various factors, this anti-hero fails in critical times.
His gratitude is of the highest order. He continues to be loyal to Duryodhana even after he learnt that the Pandavas are his siblings and his defection to their side would get him the crown. All of Krishna’s wiles and magical powers get used only against him. This itself underscores his valour.
However great may be his loyalty and munificence his innate nature is evil. “Like a person painting the outer wall of his house beautifully but keeping his interiors full of filth”, Karna’s munificence is only an external show. This beautiful simile by Villi aptly brings out the character of Karna. Even when Duryodhana’s resolve, at rare moments, seems to waver he offers him bad counsel and alongwith Sakuni, fans his jealousy and leads him on to evil ways.
An interesting addition by Villi is the episode when Kunti meets Karna. After agreeing that he will not use the Nagastra more than once on Arjuna, and he would not kill any of the other Pandavas, Karna requests Kunti that when he falls on the battle field, she should proclaim to the world that he is her son and suckle him publicly. Kunti actually does it. (Villi 43-253-258). This is a very poignant scene which shows how much torn between his affection for his brothers and loyalty to Duryodhana is Karna.
There is a very interesting improvement by Villi in the scene of Karna’s death. Even when Karna is hit by the arrows of Arjuna, he does not die. He lies on the battle field severely wounded. Krishna realizes that he is protected by his punya. So taking the shape of a Brahmin, Krishna begs Karna of his punya. Using the blood flowing from his wounded chest as water, Karna offers all his Punya to the Brahmin. Then Krishna gives the Viswaroopa Darshan to Karna, the only instance when the Lord gave Viswaroopa Darshan without being solicited – a touching end.
Karna, unlike Duryodana and Duhsasana, has great shrewdness. When Pandavas were doing ajnata vasa in Virata Desa, Duryodhana’s spies bring the news that the powerful Keechaka was killed due to his infatuation with a servant woman. Karna immediately comes out with the idea that if they invade Viratadesa to lift the cattle, Pandavas in their effort to assist the King to recover his herds will be flushed out of their hiding. This was a bright idea. It is another matter that they could not succeed in the mission as the hiding period has ended just on the previous day. (Villi 22.3).
Whatever may be Karna’s great valour and munificence, he comes out as a villain owing to his innate evil quality, jealousy and vanity. Even though he gets vanquished thrice by Arjuna single handedly at the battle in Virata desa, inviting derisive comments from Aswatthama, his vanity never leaves him (Villi 22-75-78). When Bhishma advises Duryodhana to seek peace as they are no match for the Pandavas, Karna vainly boasts of his valour and superior archery and belittles the grand sire. Thus, he, to a great extent is responsible for the false-sense of security in Duryodhana.
The Sarga on the plane for the game of dice: the epitome of the evilness of the quartet.
The wickedness of the evil-gang of four is delineated in its completeness in the chapter on the conspiracy to wage a deceitful game of dice. It is beautifully described in Sarga 11 of Villi Bharatham, where each character is shown up in his true light.
Karna starts the discussion by fuming and fretting at the good fortune of the Pandavas. Sakuni, the evil genius, is happy that all their minds are one in this respect. While Duhsasana gives vent to his wrath on the rise of Pandavas, Duryodhana says that as one has to remove the thorn before it grows into a mighty tree, Pandavas should be destroyed before they became stronger. This should be accomplished by war or by deceit; ways do not matter, only the end matters, Duhsasana, recalls the undue primacy given to Krishna ahead of all of them and the derisive laughter of Draupadi over Duryodhana’s discomfiture in the hall of magic during Raja Suya. This sets fire to the destructive fury of their minds. They agree that as Krishna is away at the moment this is the right moment, but what means to choose? ( Villi 11.12-16).
Karna among the quartet, is the only one who prefers war to deceit, not because of his dislike of adharma but because of his immense faith in his own invincibility. However the choice is made by the one person there with a very practical mind. As a matter of fact, Sakuni declares, even if they take several more births they will not be able to defeat the Pandavas He points out, to their discomfiture, as to how they lost out to the Pandavas in all their previous encounters. He advocates deceit as the only possible way, and also comes out with the full details of the proposed game of deceit. The other three immediately fall in line. (Villi 11.26 – 38).
When Yudhistira arrives, he is invited to the game Sakuni knows the psychology of the individual. He is well aware that Yudhishtira has a natural inclination for gambling. By clervely suggesting that is only a harmless pastime of the royalty, a game for the brave and finally prodding his vanity, Sakuni is able to make Yudhistira agree for the game. Consequently Yudhistra loses everything, including the freedom of himself, his siblings and worst of all, Draupadi also.
The villainy of Karna comes forth here when the loud voice of Vikarna is raised against this injustice. Karna angrily shouts him down (villi 11.2.39-24). Even after wistnessing the miraculous scene of Draupadi’s honour being saved by the Lord’s grace, even after witnessing the terrible oath of Bhima, the evil quartet does not learn. Duryodhana invites her to sit on his lap leading to her terrible oath.
When the frightened King offers the kingdom back to the Pandavas, even the Kauravas are silent; Sakuni fumes and accuses the king of “fondling the tiger by caressing its tail” (Villi 11-265).
This is followed by the second game of dice and the exit of the Pandavas to the forest.
(It is not suggested here that there is a clear binary division between that good and evil characters in the Mahabharata. In fact, in every character there is an admixture of ‘good’ and evil in certain measure. Whatever quality is predominant in a character is taken here to epitomize his nature).
Conclusion
Thus the entire drama of Mahabharata reflects the pitting of evil forces against the forces of good. The evil quartet represents the forces of wickedness, each one has his own motivation but all synergise their strengths to achieve their common goal of defeating and defaming the Pandavas, the representatives of good. Ultimately evil is destroyed and good triumphs.
Finally Vyasa himself says “one should never abandon virtue for the sake of pleasure, out of fear or because of greed, nor even for the sake of life itself Virtue is everlasting, but joy and misery are not, the living being is eternal, but the cause of his existence here is impermanent (MB 18.5.09.50).
This is the lesson we learn from the tragic lives of the evil quartet in the Mahabharata.
We conclude with the words of Will Durant, the great historian, “this poem with logic of structure and splendor of language, in-depth of portraiture and fidelity to be essence of things, is distinguished by fine feelings, a lofty idealization of woman and man and a vigorous – sometimes realistic representation of life. To an Indian, they are not mere stories; they are a gallery of ideal characters upon whom he may mould his conduct; they are a repertory of the traditions, philosophy and theology of his people ; in a sense they are sacred scriptures to be read (W.Durant story of civilisation I-570)
THE HEROES BEHIND THE ZERO
The Vedas are having six angas. Jyothisha or mathematics is one important anga of the Vedas. An old sloka says that ‘like the crown for the peacock and the diamond for the cobra, mathematics adorn the Vedangas”. Our forefather attained proficiency in different branches of mathematics like arithmetic, beejaganita (algebra) geometry, trigonometry, spherical trigonometry and astronomy.
The important contribution of the ancient Indians is the invention of zero-the very basis for modern computer algorithms. In the words of G.B.Halsted “The importance of the creation of the zero mark can never be exaggerated. No single mathematical creation has been more potent for the general on go of intelligence and power”. The concept of zero, the concept of positional value system in numeration, the concept of Pi, the techniques of algebra square and cube roots quadratic equations have been clearly explained in ancient Indian texts.
The very idea of “Sunya” of ‘Nil” as symbolized by zero is a great leap in mathematics. The first reference to zero comes in Chanda Sastra of Pingala 200 BC and in Panini’s work. Later Brahmagupta in ‘Brahma Sputa Siddhanta’ mentions about the operations of Zero.
Zero is not just a number. It is a fundamental concept like the “Shunyata’ of Acharya Nagarjuna. It is a giant leap into abstraction. This opened up a new vista of negative numbers. It also made possible the representation of high value numbers with limited characters. Thus the system of abstract numbers, as distinct from representation of quantities, and the concept of infinity and ‘nil’ developed.
Pingala’s Chanda-Shastra describes the concept of Zero.
“In Gayatri Chandas one pada has six letters. When the number is halved it becomes three. Remove one from three and make it half to get one. Remove one from it, thus Zero is gotten”.
The concept of Infinity is also indicated in the famous verse of Rigveda.
Likewise with the place of Zero, the decimal system with number representing an absolute value and also a place value became a very important factor in mathematical development.
The Sindu-Saraswati civilization dating back third millenieum BC, scales and standardization of weights and measures were noteworthy features. The lengths were measured in scales representing 1.32 inches to the Inch Numerical System. During the Vedic Age, Vedics or altars for yajnas were constructed based on different norms. Baudhayana, Apastambha and Katyayana were outstanding mathematicians of this era. Sulba Sutras-mathematical texts explain the relationship between the sides and hypotenuse with right angle triangle, which is known as ‘Pythagoras Theorm”.
Brahmagupta made great contribution to the cyclic quadrilateral theories. In fact, it is know as ‘Brahmagupta’s quadrilateral’. He has also contributed to the solution of indeterminate equations of the second degree.
Aryabhatiya-bhasya of Bhaskara is a great mathematical treatise. Bhaskara was a maths teacher at Valabhi in Saurashitra in 9th century AD. Apart from this he also wrote Mahabhaskariya, Laghu Bhaskariya and Aryabhatiya Bhasya Bhaskara’s work dominated the field of mathematics. And were popular, especially in South India. In AD 1930, Bibhuti Bhusan Datta discovered the existence of two Bhaskaras in Indian Mathematical Tradition.
Arya Bhatiya Bhasya is a full exposition of the works of Aryabhata. In the commentary, bhaskara also refers to other mathematicians like Maskari, Mudgala, Purana and Putana. He gives an exposition “In the ganita Pada the Acharya has dealt with the subject to ganita by indications only, whereas in the Kalakriya pada and golagula pada, he has dealt with reckoning of time and spherical astronomy in greater detail. So by the word Ganita used by Aryabhata I, one must understand a ‘bit of mathematics . Otherwise, the subject of mathematics is vast.
There are eight Vyavaharas (determinations) viz, mistaka (mixture), Ksertra (plan figures) kkata (excavations) Citi (pile of bricks etc) Krakacika (saw problems) rasi (heaps of grain and Chaya (shadow). Of the Vyavaharika Ganita (practical or Commercial mathematics: pati Ganita which is in eight classes, there are four bijas (methods of analysis) namely Yavattavat (theory of simple equations), VargaVarga (theory of quadratic equations), Ghanaghana (theory of cubic equations) and Vishama (theory of equations)involving several unknowns). Rules and examples pertaining to each one of them have been compiled (in independent works) by the masters Maskari, Purana, Mudgala and others. How can that be stated by the Acarya (Aryabhata I) in a small works (the Aryabhatiya)?. So, we have rightly said a bit of mathematics”. The above statement by Bhaskara I goes to prove that there have been a number of textbooks in mathematics.
The most important achievement of Indian Mathematics is the development of decimal numeration and place value system. This can be called one of the most significant developments in the history of mankind.
In the words of Pierre Simpon De Laplace, “ It is India that gave the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by ten symbols, each symbol receiving a place value position, as well as an absolute value. We shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Appollinius”.
The yoga sutra Bhashya ( 150 AD )describes this.
“In the unit place the digit has the same value, in the 10th place 10 times the value and in 100th place 100 times the value, as a woman is called mother, daughter and sister”.
THE CONCEPT OF ROOTS:
Somewhere around 6th century BC the great Indian mathematicians Apastamba authored the Sulba Sutras. Here he gives the value of the square root to the sixth decimal places Apastamba’s subla sutra is divided into 6 sections, 21 chapters and 223 sutra. It gives the geometrical propositions for the construction of altars.
His mathematics was not merely theoretical; it was for practical applications. The general linear equation was also solved in the Apastamba Sutras.
While the plane geometry was developed through the necessity of designing sacrificial altars, alter algebra or Bija-ganitam developed Bija-Ganitam measures ‘other mathematics’. Thus it has been developed as a parallel system of computation. Another interpretation of ‘Bija” means root, implying that is the origin of mathematics. It is feasible due to the fact that Vedic literatures gives, in places, short ways of computation while Aryabhata is also credited with the first treatise on algebra Bhaskaras Siddhanta Siromani elaborated this.
In the area of Plane geometry Bhaskara gives several solutions. We can see some of them here:
1. PROBLEM OF AREA OF A SCALENE TRIANGLE.
What is the area of a scalene triangle whose sides are 15 and 13 units and base to 14 units? Bhaskara gives an algorithm which is, similar to the modern flow chart. Bhaskara’s method. Difference of the squares of the sides is to be obtained by multiplying their sum and differences. The difference thus obtained is to be divided by the base. The quotient to be added to or subtracted from the base. Half of these values are the parts of the base(made by the altitude) from these value the altitude is to be found and then the area of the given triangle (1/2 bh).
2. Value of p is first given in Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata I (5th century AD) Ganita-pada of Dasagatika in Aryabhatiya says.
(Hundred plus four multiplied by eight and added to sixty two thousand: this is the most approximate measure of the circumference of a circle whose diameter is twenty thousand). Aryabhata has used a complex algorithm to arrive at this.
3. Parameswara’s formula for the circum radius of a cyclic quadrilateral.
4. Trigonometric series for the tanX values. In modern mathematics, inverse tangent function is called Gregorian series after the 17th century Scottish mathematician James Gregory. In fact, the solution had been given nearly 2 centers earlier by Madhava in his algorithm.
5. The approximation formula for the third order Taylor series is given by Parameswara in 14th century in his commentary called Siddhanta depika on Govindaswamin’s Commentary on Mahabhaskariya.
RIG VEDIC ASTRONOMY
There are great references to the astronomical facts in the Rig Veda Sathapate Brahmana gives the names of 27 stars and 27 Upa-nakshatras. At the same time other texts like Taitriya, Kakthaka and Maitrayana. Samhitas give the name of 28 stars. Names of other constellations are also mentioned. Early reference is to a six days week called ‘Sadaha’. Later seven days week came into being; while some samhitas speak about six seasons, other speak of five, clubbing hemante and Sisira.
(Vasanta, Grishma, Varsha, Sarada, Hemanta, Sisira)
The seminal text here is Vedanga Jyotisa of Logadha around 1300 BC.
It was followed by Siddanta Astronomy broader in scope. Varahamih describes five systems of Siddhanta astronomy, Partamaha, Vasisha, Romaka, Pauhka and Saura-Shere are common points between Indian and other astronomical system. We
· The division of the Zodiac into 27 or 28 asterisms, commonly found among Indian, Chinese and Arab systems.
· The twelve fold division of the ecliptic circle into zodiacal signs
· The theory of epicycles
· Parallel systems of astrology
· Common names of planets in Indian and Greek System
Surya Siddhanta also talks about the spherical shape of the earth.
“As the earth is round every person considers himself at the top of the earth where he or she is standing. So downward direction is towards the centre of the earth for everyone”.
Bhugholadhyaya, (Surya Siddhanta) . The idea of spherical shape of the earth, was accepted in the west only after the 14th century.
The Panchavamsa Brahmana (6.8.6) states that the heavens are 1000 earth diameters away from the earth. The sun was taken to be halfway to the heavens. This suggests a distance to the Sun to be about 500 earth diameters from the earth, which is about 4357 million yojanas , yajurveda (hymn 17) dealing with the nature of the Universe, counts numbers in power of ten upto 1012.
We can see here the observation of Ebenezer Burgess, on the translation of Surya Siddhanta .
“In reference to most (of the above points), the evidence of originality I regard as clearly in favour of the Hindus; and in regard to some, and those the more important, this evidence appears to me nearly or quite conclusive… As to the lunar division of the Zodiac… the undoubted antiquity of this division among the Hindus, in connection with the absence or paucity of such evidence among any other people, incline me decidedly to the opinion that the division is of a purely Hindu origin.
As to the solar division… this was known to the Hindus centuries before any traces can be found in existence among any other people.
The theory of epicycles. The difference in the development of this theory in the Greek and Hindu systems of astronomy precludes the idea that one of these people derived more than a hint respecting it from the other. And so far as this point alone is concerned, we have as much reasons to suppose the Greeks to have been the borrowers as the contrary; but other considerations seem to favour the supposition that the Hindus were the original inventors of this theory.
As regards astrology, there is not much honor, in any estimation, connected with its invention and culture. But the honor of original invention, such as it is, lies, I think between the Hindus and the Chaldeans. The evidence of priority of invention and culture seems, on the whole to be in favour of the former…There is abundant testimony to the fact that the division of the day into twenty-four hours existed in the East, if not actually in India, before it did in Greece. In reference, further, to the so-called Greek words found in Hindu astronomical treatises, I would remark that we may with entire propriety refer them to that numerous class of words common to the Greek and Sanskrit languages which either came to both from a common source, or passed from the Sanskrit to the Greek at a period of high antiquity.
As to the names of the planets, I remark that the identity of all of them in the Hindu and the Greek systems is not to my mind clearly made out.
And in regard to…data and results-as for instance, the amount of the annual precession of the equinoxes, the relative size of the sun and the moon as compared with the earth, the greatest equation of the centre for the sun- the Hindus are more nearly correct than the Greeks, and in regard to the times of the revolutions of the planets they are very nearly as correct: it appearing from a comparative view of the sidereal revolutions of the planets, that the Hindus are most nearly correct in four items, and Ptolemy in six. There has evidently been very little astronomical borrowing between the Hindus and the Greeks. And in relation to the points that prove a communication from one people to the other… I am inclined to think that the course of derivation was from east to west rather than from west to east”.
The reference to the five planets in the Vedic literature is brought out as 34 lights in Rig Veda 10.5.3 (27 stars, the sun, the moon and the five planets).
[Brahaspati : RV 4.50.4
Vena (Venus) RV 10.123
Sukra(Venus) RV 3.32.2
Cosmology was also discussed in these texts.
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
The Infinitesimal Calculus in India is a product of the attempts of the earlier astronomers to chase the instantaneous motion of the planets. Bramha Gupta calculated the average velocity of the Planet Mars based on its instantaneous motion. The concept of the differentiation also appears in Siddhanta Siromani of Bhaskaracharya II. It was studied in connection with the instantaneous motion of the planet and the position angle of the ecliptic of secondary to the equator. The ideas of different co-efficient has been clearly stated by Bhaskaracharya in the same book. The theorem that for a maximum value for a function, its first differential co-efficient should be zero is stated by Bhaskaracharya in his Siddhanta Siromani.
The idea of integration and its development also has been indicated in the same book in connection with the surface area and volume of a sphere.
The idea of summation of an infinite series is found in Yukthi Basha nearly a century earlier than Newton or Leibnicz.
Conclusion:
What I have presented so far is only on the nature of “a trial” and appetizer in the field of ancient Indian Mathematics – It is really vast in scope and profound in depth. There has been a continuous stream of Indian mathematicians from Apastamba to Ramanujam. With such abundance of mathematical heritage, India can rise to be a World power!
P.S.
This lecture was delivered at the University of Pondicherry on 27.12.2003 during International WAVES Conference.
The important contribution of the ancient Indians is the invention of zero-the very basis for modern computer algorithms. In the words of G.B.Halsted “The importance of the creation of the zero mark can never be exaggerated. No single mathematical creation has been more potent for the general on go of intelligence and power”. The concept of zero, the concept of positional value system in numeration, the concept of Pi, the techniques of algebra square and cube roots quadratic equations have been clearly explained in ancient Indian texts.
The very idea of “Sunya” of ‘Nil” as symbolized by zero is a great leap in mathematics. The first reference to zero comes in Chanda Sastra of Pingala 200 BC and in Panini’s work. Later Brahmagupta in ‘Brahma Sputa Siddhanta’ mentions about the operations of Zero.
Zero is not just a number. It is a fundamental concept like the “Shunyata’ of Acharya Nagarjuna. It is a giant leap into abstraction. This opened up a new vista of negative numbers. It also made possible the representation of high value numbers with limited characters. Thus the system of abstract numbers, as distinct from representation of quantities, and the concept of infinity and ‘nil’ developed.
Pingala’s Chanda-Shastra describes the concept of Zero.
“In Gayatri Chandas one pada has six letters. When the number is halved it becomes three. Remove one from three and make it half to get one. Remove one from it, thus Zero is gotten”.
The concept of Infinity is also indicated in the famous verse of Rigveda.
Likewise with the place of Zero, the decimal system with number representing an absolute value and also a place value became a very important factor in mathematical development.
The Sindu-Saraswati civilization dating back third millenieum BC, scales and standardization of weights and measures were noteworthy features. The lengths were measured in scales representing 1.32 inches to the Inch Numerical System. During the Vedic Age, Vedics or altars for yajnas were constructed based on different norms. Baudhayana, Apastambha and Katyayana were outstanding mathematicians of this era. Sulba Sutras-mathematical texts explain the relationship between the sides and hypotenuse with right angle triangle, which is known as ‘Pythagoras Theorm”.
Brahmagupta made great contribution to the cyclic quadrilateral theories. In fact, it is know as ‘Brahmagupta’s quadrilateral’. He has also contributed to the solution of indeterminate equations of the second degree.
Aryabhatiya-bhasya of Bhaskara is a great mathematical treatise. Bhaskara was a maths teacher at Valabhi in Saurashitra in 9th century AD. Apart from this he also wrote Mahabhaskariya, Laghu Bhaskariya and Aryabhatiya Bhasya Bhaskara’s work dominated the field of mathematics. And were popular, especially in South India. In AD 1930, Bibhuti Bhusan Datta discovered the existence of two Bhaskaras in Indian Mathematical Tradition.
Arya Bhatiya Bhasya is a full exposition of the works of Aryabhata. In the commentary, bhaskara also refers to other mathematicians like Maskari, Mudgala, Purana and Putana. He gives an exposition “In the ganita Pada the Acharya has dealt with the subject to ganita by indications only, whereas in the Kalakriya pada and golagula pada, he has dealt with reckoning of time and spherical astronomy in greater detail. So by the word Ganita used by Aryabhata I, one must understand a ‘bit of mathematics . Otherwise, the subject of mathematics is vast.
There are eight Vyavaharas (determinations) viz, mistaka (mixture), Ksertra (plan figures) kkata (excavations) Citi (pile of bricks etc) Krakacika (saw problems) rasi (heaps of grain and Chaya (shadow). Of the Vyavaharika Ganita (practical or Commercial mathematics: pati Ganita which is in eight classes, there are four bijas (methods of analysis) namely Yavattavat (theory of simple equations), VargaVarga (theory of quadratic equations), Ghanaghana (theory of cubic equations) and Vishama (theory of equations)involving several unknowns). Rules and examples pertaining to each one of them have been compiled (in independent works) by the masters Maskari, Purana, Mudgala and others. How can that be stated by the Acarya (Aryabhata I) in a small works (the Aryabhatiya)?. So, we have rightly said a bit of mathematics”. The above statement by Bhaskara I goes to prove that there have been a number of textbooks in mathematics.
The most important achievement of Indian Mathematics is the development of decimal numeration and place value system. This can be called one of the most significant developments in the history of mankind.
In the words of Pierre Simpon De Laplace, “ It is India that gave the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by ten symbols, each symbol receiving a place value position, as well as an absolute value. We shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Appollinius”.
The yoga sutra Bhashya ( 150 AD )describes this.
“In the unit place the digit has the same value, in the 10th place 10 times the value and in 100th place 100 times the value, as a woman is called mother, daughter and sister”.
THE CONCEPT OF ROOTS:
Somewhere around 6th century BC the great Indian mathematicians Apastamba authored the Sulba Sutras. Here he gives the value of the square root to the sixth decimal places Apastamba’s subla sutra is divided into 6 sections, 21 chapters and 223 sutra. It gives the geometrical propositions for the construction of altars.
His mathematics was not merely theoretical; it was for practical applications. The general linear equation was also solved in the Apastamba Sutras.
While the plane geometry was developed through the necessity of designing sacrificial altars, alter algebra or Bija-ganitam developed Bija-Ganitam measures ‘other mathematics’. Thus it has been developed as a parallel system of computation. Another interpretation of ‘Bija” means root, implying that is the origin of mathematics. It is feasible due to the fact that Vedic literatures gives, in places, short ways of computation while Aryabhata is also credited with the first treatise on algebra Bhaskaras Siddhanta Siromani elaborated this.
In the area of Plane geometry Bhaskara gives several solutions. We can see some of them here:
1. PROBLEM OF AREA OF A SCALENE TRIANGLE.
What is the area of a scalene triangle whose sides are 15 and 13 units and base to 14 units? Bhaskara gives an algorithm which is, similar to the modern flow chart. Bhaskara’s method. Difference of the squares of the sides is to be obtained by multiplying their sum and differences. The difference thus obtained is to be divided by the base. The quotient to be added to or subtracted from the base. Half of these values are the parts of the base(made by the altitude) from these value the altitude is to be found and then the area of the given triangle (1/2 bh).
2. Value of p is first given in Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata I (5th century AD) Ganita-pada of Dasagatika in Aryabhatiya says.
(Hundred plus four multiplied by eight and added to sixty two thousand: this is the most approximate measure of the circumference of a circle whose diameter is twenty thousand). Aryabhata has used a complex algorithm to arrive at this.
3. Parameswara’s formula for the circum radius of a cyclic quadrilateral.
4. Trigonometric series for the tanX values. In modern mathematics, inverse tangent function is called Gregorian series after the 17th century Scottish mathematician James Gregory. In fact, the solution had been given nearly 2 centers earlier by Madhava in his algorithm.
5. The approximation formula for the third order Taylor series is given by Parameswara in 14th century in his commentary called Siddhanta depika on Govindaswamin’s Commentary on Mahabhaskariya.
RIG VEDIC ASTRONOMY
There are great references to the astronomical facts in the Rig Veda Sathapate Brahmana gives the names of 27 stars and 27 Upa-nakshatras. At the same time other texts like Taitriya, Kakthaka and Maitrayana. Samhitas give the name of 28 stars. Names of other constellations are also mentioned. Early reference is to a six days week called ‘Sadaha’. Later seven days week came into being; while some samhitas speak about six seasons, other speak of five, clubbing hemante and Sisira.
(Vasanta, Grishma, Varsha, Sarada, Hemanta, Sisira)
The seminal text here is Vedanga Jyotisa of Logadha around 1300 BC.
It was followed by Siddanta Astronomy broader in scope. Varahamih describes five systems of Siddhanta astronomy, Partamaha, Vasisha, Romaka, Pauhka and Saura-Shere are common points between Indian and other astronomical system. We
· The division of the Zodiac into 27 or 28 asterisms, commonly found among Indian, Chinese and Arab systems.
· The twelve fold division of the ecliptic circle into zodiacal signs
· The theory of epicycles
· Parallel systems of astrology
· Common names of planets in Indian and Greek System
Surya Siddhanta also talks about the spherical shape of the earth.
“As the earth is round every person considers himself at the top of the earth where he or she is standing. So downward direction is towards the centre of the earth for everyone”.
Bhugholadhyaya, (Surya Siddhanta) . The idea of spherical shape of the earth, was accepted in the west only after the 14th century.
The Panchavamsa Brahmana (6.8.6) states that the heavens are 1000 earth diameters away from the earth. The sun was taken to be halfway to the heavens. This suggests a distance to the Sun to be about 500 earth diameters from the earth, which is about 4357 million yojanas , yajurveda (hymn 17) dealing with the nature of the Universe, counts numbers in power of ten upto 1012.
We can see here the observation of Ebenezer Burgess, on the translation of Surya Siddhanta .
“In reference to most (of the above points), the evidence of originality I regard as clearly in favour of the Hindus; and in regard to some, and those the more important, this evidence appears to me nearly or quite conclusive… As to the lunar division of the Zodiac… the undoubted antiquity of this division among the Hindus, in connection with the absence or paucity of such evidence among any other people, incline me decidedly to the opinion that the division is of a purely Hindu origin.
As to the solar division… this was known to the Hindus centuries before any traces can be found in existence among any other people.
The theory of epicycles. The difference in the development of this theory in the Greek and Hindu systems of astronomy precludes the idea that one of these people derived more than a hint respecting it from the other. And so far as this point alone is concerned, we have as much reasons to suppose the Greeks to have been the borrowers as the contrary; but other considerations seem to favour the supposition that the Hindus were the original inventors of this theory.
As regards astrology, there is not much honor, in any estimation, connected with its invention and culture. But the honor of original invention, such as it is, lies, I think between the Hindus and the Chaldeans. The evidence of priority of invention and culture seems, on the whole to be in favour of the former…There is abundant testimony to the fact that the division of the day into twenty-four hours existed in the East, if not actually in India, before it did in Greece. In reference, further, to the so-called Greek words found in Hindu astronomical treatises, I would remark that we may with entire propriety refer them to that numerous class of words common to the Greek and Sanskrit languages which either came to both from a common source, or passed from the Sanskrit to the Greek at a period of high antiquity.
As to the names of the planets, I remark that the identity of all of them in the Hindu and the Greek systems is not to my mind clearly made out.
And in regard to…data and results-as for instance, the amount of the annual precession of the equinoxes, the relative size of the sun and the moon as compared with the earth, the greatest equation of the centre for the sun- the Hindus are more nearly correct than the Greeks, and in regard to the times of the revolutions of the planets they are very nearly as correct: it appearing from a comparative view of the sidereal revolutions of the planets, that the Hindus are most nearly correct in four items, and Ptolemy in six. There has evidently been very little astronomical borrowing between the Hindus and the Greeks. And in relation to the points that prove a communication from one people to the other… I am inclined to think that the course of derivation was from east to west rather than from west to east”.
The reference to the five planets in the Vedic literature is brought out as 34 lights in Rig Veda 10.5.3 (27 stars, the sun, the moon and the five planets).
[Brahaspati : RV 4.50.4
Vena (Venus) RV 10.123
Sukra(Venus) RV 3.32.2
Cosmology was also discussed in these texts.
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS
The Infinitesimal Calculus in India is a product of the attempts of the earlier astronomers to chase the instantaneous motion of the planets. Bramha Gupta calculated the average velocity of the Planet Mars based on its instantaneous motion. The concept of the differentiation also appears in Siddhanta Siromani of Bhaskaracharya II. It was studied in connection with the instantaneous motion of the planet and the position angle of the ecliptic of secondary to the equator. The ideas of different co-efficient has been clearly stated by Bhaskaracharya in the same book. The theorem that for a maximum value for a function, its first differential co-efficient should be zero is stated by Bhaskaracharya in his Siddhanta Siromani.
The idea of integration and its development also has been indicated in the same book in connection with the surface area and volume of a sphere.
The idea of summation of an infinite series is found in Yukthi Basha nearly a century earlier than Newton or Leibnicz.
Conclusion:
What I have presented so far is only on the nature of “a trial” and appetizer in the field of ancient Indian Mathematics – It is really vast in scope and profound in depth. There has been a continuous stream of Indian mathematicians from Apastamba to Ramanujam. With such abundance of mathematical heritage, India can rise to be a World power!
P.S.
This lecture was delivered at the University of Pondicherry on 27.12.2003 during International WAVES Conference.
CONCEPT OF TIME IN INDIAN HERITAGE
INTRODUCTION :
The Dictionary of Philosophy defines time thus: “Time is the general medium in which all events take place in succession or appear to take place in succession.” This is a typically western approach to time. Time, in Indian Heritage, goes far beyond this. It is not a mere quantity, a numerical measurement of seconds, minutes, hours and years. It is considered as “an energy of the universe, a river to be navigated, a bosom to find rest”
There is a popular Hindu Mythological story in which sage Narada was asked by Lord Krishna to fetch a cup of water for him, while discussing the concepts of nescience and delusion. Narada while going to fetch water from the river, falls in love with a girl and marries her. So many things successively happen in his life. Finally at the last hour of his family life, he cries aloud at his misfortune. Then he hears the voice of Lord Krishna “why you have taken so long to fetch a cup of water?” Then Narada realizes that while he had relatively experienced a long duration of time, in actuality, it has passed off in a trice. The story recalls William Blake’s assertion that it is possible to experience “the world in a grain of sand and eternity in an hour”. Thus ancient Indian civilization came out with the brilliant idea of "Relative Time and Absolute Time". The story above demonstrates that the relative time is not the measure of activity; or two similar events can have two independent measures of time ! In a simple given experience there is no perception of time, just as there is no concept of distance when there is only one point.
The Idea of Time in Indian Knowledge Systems
In the Indian Heritage, Time is not a linear, single-directional movement, like an arrow speeding from past to future. It is “no more than a convenient delusion of our mechanical world, connecting a living vibrant time with the interior curling details of a fractal.” 1 When we enter into the curvature of eternal time, we experience a fullness of true inner rhythm of life.
The idea of Time itself was quite advanced in Indian Heritage. “This astronomy is surprisingly advanced - the concept in fact can be compared with those of Newtonian times and in some cases even later times ; much of the knowledge, however, was lost. “ 2
The concept of the Mega cycle is mentioned in the Hindu epics. For instance Lord Krishna tells Arjuna in Bhagavat Gita “All worlds from Brahma’s world (universe) are periodic, oh Arjuna !.
Those who know the day and night know that a day of Brahma is thousand yugas long and night is a thousand yugas long.
From the unmanifested, all the manifested things spring forth on the arrival of the day (Brahma) ; on the onset of night, all this sink into what is called the unmanifested.
Partha, this multitude of created things having existed over and over again and helplessly destroyed at the on set of night spring forth on the onset of the day” 3
Very interestingly Sankara in his commentary for the verse 16 says that the word Ahoratra refer to those “who can measure time” i.e. those who have gone beyond the axis of time (Kala : Sankhya vido jana :)
For instance, some of the advanced concepts like the sphericity of Earth and the cause of seasons are clearly mentioned in our ancient texts. The Aitareya Brahmana declares” The sun does never set or rise; when people think the sun is setting, it is not so; for after having arrived at the end of the day, it makes itself produce two opposite effects, making night to what is below and day to what is on the other side. Having reached the end of the night, it makes itself produce two opposite effects, making day to what is below and night to what is on the other side: The sun never sets”. 4
The concept of cyclical nature of time, time as curvature is given in this beautiful statement in the satapata brahmana (1.6.1.3) ”Even while the foremost were still ploughing and sowing, those behind them were already engaged in reaping and threshing.” 5
According to Dr.David Frawley, in the familiar Vedic chant, ‘Apam Pushpam’, the term apa: indicates waves, suggesting vibration. It often refers to space. Later Vedanta speaks about the “ocean of consciousness” in the Astha Vakra Gita. In the Aghamarshana Sukta of Rig Veda (X 190) it speaks of creation as coming from Rit to Satyam, to Tapas, to Ratri and then to the Ocean (Samudra). From the ocean, Time (Samvatsara) is born. Maitrayani Upanishad also mentions of the connection between (prana) life force and Time: prana being the inner sun that get measured by the movement of the outer sun.
The Hindu concept talks of Rhythm or universal order which is manifested as Time. Time Rhythm range from the fast ticking of the atom to the expansion of the entire cosmos - Time unfolding within the geological process of the Earth the change of the season, the life cycle of a fly etc.
“The metaphysical doctrine simply contrasts time as a continuum with the eternity that is not in time, and so cannot properly be called “everlasting”, but coincides with the real present” or “now” of which temporal experience is impossible” (Dr.Ananda K.Coomaraswamy in “Time and Eternity”)
Time itself or Kala is connected to Lord Siva in Indian Heritage. Siva is called Maha Kala – “the great Time”. His consort Kali personifies the energy of Time. According to the Seminal work in Vedic Astronomy, ‘Surya Siddhanta’ “Time is the destroyer of the world ; another Time has for its nature to bring to pass. This latter according as it is gross or minute, is called by two names, real (murta) and unreal (amurta) (verse 10)6 .
As mentioned here, Time is, in a metaphorical sense, the great destroyer of all things; as such, he is identified with Death and with Yama the ruler of the dead. Lord Krishna also declares that “I am Kala”. As seen above, Time, according to Surya Siddhanta, has both its imaginary and practical divisions ; the former is called Murta(embodied), the latter amurta ( virtual or Unembodied) We can see here the forerunner of the modern concept of virtual time. The epithet ‘kalanatmaka’ applied to the actual time in the verse, interprets it as an “object of knowledge.” The Surya Siddhanta delineates that ‘what begins with respirations (pra_na) is called real; that what begins with atoms (truti) is called unreal.
“The Surya Siddhanta with commendable moderation refrains from giving the imaginary sub-divisions of respiration which make up “unreal time”(Rev.Ebenezer Burgess), which are stated in Bhaskara’s Siddhanta Ciromani.
In AV.19.53 and 54, cited above, "Time" - absolutely - is the source of all relative times ; not itself a duration, but rather the Timeless, Eternity, to which all moveable time is ever present. It is in these terms that the Maitri Upanishad distinghishes the "two forms" (dve rupe) of Brahman, i.e. aspects of the two natures (dvaitibhava) of the single essence (tad ekam), as "time and the Timeless (kalas-cakalas-ca): "From one who worships, thinking "Time is Brahma" (katam brahmeti), time(kala, also death) reflows afar. As it has been said:
From Time flow forth all beings,
From Time advance to their full growth,
And in Time, again, win home, -
"Time" is the formed(murti) and formless, both.
There are, indeed, two forms of Brahma; time, and the Timeless. That which is prior to the sun is the Timeless(akala) and partless (akala) ; but that which begins with the sun is the time that has parts (sakala), and its form is that of the year .
Concepts of Time in various Indian Traditions:
Let us start from a metaphysical view of Time. From a metaphysical point of view, “for any conscious functioning in terms of time and space, “now” succeeds “now” without interruption. None of these “nows” has any duration and that as measures, all alike are zeros… It is a matter of relativity. It is we who move, while the ‘now’ is unmoved and only seems to move – much as the sun only seems to rise and set because the earth revolves” 7.
Different systems of philosophy and thought in Indian Heritage have their own concept of Time. A brief presentation is given in the succeeding paragraphs :
In Hinduism – Vedic Concepts:
From a basic point of view, all measures of time from micro divisions to cosmic years are united in the union of the triad of apparent time procession(pravrtti) recession(nivritti) and stasis (sthiti) Time (Kala) unites these three and by these the entire universe is united(samhita) that of the now.
Aitareya Aranyaka quotes Rig Veda 10.55.2 when it says “great is that hidden Name and far extending whereby thou made past and future (bhutam … bhavyam) 8
In the Vedas, Time is equated with the Consciousness Time (Kala) is the source of the divisions of time. It unites procession recession and stasis.
“Kalo gatinivrtti sthiti: samdadhati” (Sankhayana Aranyaka 7.20)
Atvarva Veda Samhita also echos the same idea “Sent forth by Time (Kala) what hath been and shall be stand apart… Time hath engendered what hath been and shall be’. In Katha Upanishad also Yama tells Naciketas “Time is the Lord of what hath been and shall be. He is both today and tomorrow”(KU 4.13)
As mentioned in the Atarva Veda referred to above, Absolute Time is the source of all relative times. It is not a duration but the Eternity on which all moveable times abide. The Absolute Time and Relative Time are clearly delineated in the Maitri Upanishad. It says that the single Brahman (Tadekam) has two facets – time and the timeless (Kalas ca Kalasca). The same idea is expressed in Aitareya Brahmana (3.49) “Day and night are death but they do not affect the divinity Aditya; for they are only the occasions of his rising and setting. But really he never sets”
References in the Upanishad to Kala as Brahman
Chandogya Upanishad (3.2.3) says that, that for a person who has realised the ultimate “It is evermore high noon”. For one who offers worship meditating on Time as Brahman (Kalam Brahmat), there is no death.
The transcendent and immanent Atma is called Kala who devours all that exists as his food (Maitri Upanishad 6.2) Lord of what has been and what shall be He alone is today and tomorrow (Kena Upanishad)(2.14)
The latest one among the major Upanishads, Svetasvatara Upanishad starts with the statement “Time, inherent nature, destiny, chance, the elements, or the individual soul, cannot be the source, because they exist for the Soul. The non-independent soul, bound by joy and sorrow cannot be the source.”
Kala: Swabhavo niyatir yadruccha
Bhutani yoni: purusha iti cintya
Samyoga esham tatvatmabhava
Datapyanisa: sukha du: khe heto ||
Sankaracarya, in his commentary on this verse, says that “time is that which is the cause of transformation of all entities. Time by itself, or in combination with space and causation, cannot be the original source, because they are not independent entities.” 9. Svetasvatara Upanishad describes Atma as one who is partless, the constant among the inconstant, the one of the many, all-creator, omniscient, immortal, omnipresent - He is the creator of time (Kala Karah) (Svet up 6.13-29) At the command of that imperishable atma, the moment hours… and years exist apart. (Brahadaranayakam 3.8.9)
The Yoga Sutra Bhashya 3.52 describes a “moment” (Ksana) as the ultimate minimum of time that cannot be further divided up and the continuous flow of such moments is their course. The whole world passes through a mutation in one moment so all the external qualities of the world are relative to this present moment.
Concepts of Time in other schools of Hindu Thought:
For the Nyaya vaiseshika School, time is a separate entity. Only because time exists as a separate entity, our ideas of succession, simultaneity, quickness tardiness etc. are perceived. As per Nyayakundali “Our perception of things can only occur directly and immediately with reference to objective things alone, and not time, as time is not perceivable. Changes in objects make us infer the existence of time behind such changes, from our motions of old and new of past and present. “Though time is one, due to its association with diverse kind of things it appears as many.” 10 This is very similar to the western idea, especially Kantian philosophy.
Naiyayikas like Jayanta Bhatta say that time is experienced through visual organs as a “fact of experience”. While we see an object, we see that as existing “now” i.e. in addition to the perception of object a parameter of time also enters into it.
According to Prasastapada 11, “Time is the cause of the contrary notions of priority, simultaneity, succession, late, soon, etc. It is the cause or basis of the production, persistence and destruction or cessation of all produced things as all these are spoken of in terms of time. It is also the basis of such conventional usages as ksana… all measures of time, from a fraction of a second to millennia”. Qualities of time according Prasastapada are number, dimension, separateness, conjunction and disfunction.
According to the Sankhya System, infinite time is a non entity. Time is only a creation of the understanding (buddhi nirmana) Time can be divided and subdivided till it can not be divided any further. Its smallest unit is considered to be that which is taken by an atom to move in its own dimension of space. Any change in a substance is ultimately reflected in the atoms (Paramanu) of that substance. The transit of paramanu from one point in space to the next succeeding parent is the absolute unit of time Sankhya also asserts that only the “Now” exits by which universe evolves in that one single moment.
According to Yoga School, Time is the one by which the growth and decay of things are noticed. The movement of the sun activates different kinds of activities during the day and during the night.
According to Ramanuja’s commentary on Brahma Sutras (2.2.31) Time is a particular substance which is the cause of the current distinction of past, present and future.
Concept of Time in Buddhism:
Buddhist texts, both in Thera vada and Mahayana traditions, have dealt with the concept of Time. Buddhist doctrine talks about instant movement “(khana or “kshana” meaning glance)”. Time as period is to be distinguished from Time, the principle. Buddhist doctrine is emphatic about the unreality of being (satta) and the soul (atta) The brevity of life, as graphically explained in the Buddhist texts life, is like a dew drop on the tip of a blade of grass when the sun rises. Such is the lifetime of men (Visuddhi Maaga 231). Further, in the last analysis, “the movement of life (jivita khano) of being is just as over-brief (atiparithi) as the turning of a single thought, like the turning of a chariot wheel which turns by means of just one place on its rim, so is the life of beings, that of a single moment of thought and when that this ends, the being is said to have ended. In the past thought moment, one lived …….. in the future thought moment one will live ……. In the present one is alive.”(Visuddhi Magga)
Buddha perceives the world as in momentary dissolution “In the present lives the world and with the breakup of a thought it dies (paccupannena jivati cittabhanga mat_ loke)” From the unseen come forth born beings and broken-up pass into the unseen, Like a flash of lighting in the akasa, they arrive and pass away12.
This is very similar to the idea expressed in the Upanishads: This world measured by a thought, the conflux ….. just a thought (idam cittamatram uttam eva samsaram) 13
The commentary on Abhidhamma clearly explains the concept of time in Buddhist philosophy. According to philosophers like Buddha Ghosha, it is a mere concept which does not exist in an absolute sense What space is to matter time is to mind. Time is past (atta) present (paccupanna) and future(anagata)
The Abhidhamma Text 14 defines the past “as that which has gone beyond its own state or the moment of genesis, development and cessation (attano sabhavam uppadadikkhanam va atta atikkanta atita).
Present is that which on account of this and that reason enters, goes, exists above the moments of genesis etc (tam tam karanam paticca uppadadikhanam uddham punna, gata, pavatta)
Future is that which has not yet reached both states (tadubhayam pi na agata sampatha)
According to Abhidhamma, each consciousness consists of three phases – uppada(genesis), thiti(developments) and bhanga(dissolution). Each thought- moment is followed by another. Time is thus the sine-qua-non of the succession of mental states. The fundamental unit of time is the duration of thought- moments. The rapidity of these fleeting thought-moments is such that within the brief duration of a flash of lighting, there may be billions of thought moments.
“Past is gone. Future has not come. We live only for one thought moment and that slips into the irrevocable past. In one sense there is only the eternal Now. In another sense the so called present is the transitional stage from the future to the past” (From Naradas’ commentary on the chapter Alambana Sangaho of the Abhidhamma Text)
Buddha Ghosha explains that as Nibbana is eternal, it does not belong to the past, present or future. It is timeless. Similar reply was given by Sri Ramana Maharishi to the question “How long did your awakening through death-experience take?” He said “it could be a fraction of a minute; it is beyond time.”
The awakened one, the Buddha is timeless: akaliko(Anguttara Nikaya 4.359)15 and he transcends the aeons (mega cycles of time - Kappatito Vipamutto (Sutta Nipata 3)-373) They call him the “Awakened One” who discerns the aeons, the flux of things in which they fall and rise one for whom birth is at an end. For him there is no past or future” (ibid 1.141)
According to Visuddhi Magga, a Buddha envisages past or future aeons directly “it is as if they formed a circle, (beginningless and endless cycle) of which he is the center, no further from one than any other point in the circumference” 16
Contrasting to the aeons of practice or the length of the spiritual path, the ‘awakening’ is instantaneous: the aeonic time thus becomes the instantaneous “now”, like the sudden release of arrow. Vasubandhu in Abhisamayalankara says that abhisambodhi, the great awakening, is single-instantaneous (eka-kshana) or timeless. This is also confirmed by the experience of Sri Ramana Maharishi.
Perception of Time:
While there appears to be some agreement among Nyaya-Vaiseshika and to certain extent the Jain schools about the existence of Time, Jainese schools talk of Vartana (continuity of perception) and atomistic existence of moments ; the Buddhists and the Sankhya School deny the objective existence of time. The Vedantins also hold similar but modified views. The perception of time among the various schools is an interesting area of study.
Generally the “Indian philosophers are of the opinion that time is a co-efficient of all consciousness including external perception and internal perception. But they do not recognize the perception as an independent entity. According to them, there is no sense for empty time as an independent entity; succession and duration are the two important constituents of time.” 17 Perception of succession is derived from the perception of changes and the perception of duration is derived from the perception of ”specious present” The perception of specious present is considered as the nucleus of all our time – consciousness. The consciousness of consciousness past and future are brought to the consciousness respectively by memory and expectation.
Kant has a similar doctrine. He considers time as a purely subjective form of our perception. “Conditioned as we are by the properties of our perceiving apparatus, we create time as a convenience for perception of the outside world.” Kant says. “In other words, we perceive reality as though through a narrow slit. What we see through this slit, we call it present. What we saw but see no longer, we call the past and what we do not see at all but expect to see we call the future”
According to Vedantins, time is a co-efficient of all perception. Can a time be an object of visual perception ? Does it have magnitude (mahattva) or sensible colour (udbhutarupavattva) ? As mentioned earlier, Jayanta Bhatta says that time is perceived through the visual organ as a “fact of experience” 18. An unambiguous experience of the existence of an object existing “now”, like “the jar exists now” (idanim ghatam vartate) demonstrates that in addition to the object, an element of time viz. the present time also enters into the perception of the object. “ The present time is perceived as a qualification of every object of perception. Whenever an object, event, or action is perceived, it is not perceived as timeless but as existing or occurring in time, or qualified by the present time (Jadunath Sinha: P111). The perception is not limited to visual perception “. It is perceived by all the sense organs, external or internal as a qualification of their objects. 19
One important point to be considered here is that time is a function of “succession”. It is not possible to cognise it apart from changes that occurs in it, which is indicated by temporal flags like “before”, “after”, “earlier”, “later”, etc. As Jayanta says 18 Time is identical with action or change. Time and action are synonymous. Hence there is no perception of time at all, but only that of actions” (karyamatravalambana).
The fact, however, is that time is a constituent factor, into the perception of action, as a qualifying adjunct (Viseshana) of events or actions. Actions are never perceived without being qualified by time. Time is qualifying adjunct for all actions and objects. Similarly there is no perception of empty time bereft of object or actions. As William James says “We have no sense for empty time. We can no more intuit a duration than we can intuit an extension devoid of all sensible content”. 20
What is the “Present” or “Now”:
In the remarkable words of William James “Let anyone try to attend to the present moment of time. One of the most baffling experience occurs. Where is it, this present ? It has melted in our grasp, fled ere we could touch it, gone in the moment of becoming…. It is only as entering into the living and moving organization of a much wider tract of time that the strict present is apprehended at all. It is in fact an altogether ideal abstraction, not only never realized in sense, but probably never even conceived of by those unaccustomed to philosophic meditation. Reflection leads us to the conclusion that it must exist, but that it does exist can never be a fact of our immediate experience. The only fact of our immediate experience is what Mr.Clay has well called the “specious present” 20
Mr.Ouspensky defines present as “the moment of transition from the future into the past-the moment of a transition of a phenomenon from one non-existence to the another . Only during this brief moment does a phenomenon really exists; before it exists as a potentiality and after as a memory….. We must admit that the past, the present and the future do not differ from one another in any way that the only thing that exists is the present……. the “Eternal Now” of Indian philosophy. But we do not see it because at every given moment, we are only aware of a small fragment of this presence” 21.
However there are also arguments, which are adduced to prove that there is no ‘present’ : A fruit falling from a tree, has only a ‘traversed space’ and ‘space to be traversed’ before it completes its action. There is no third space. Corresponding to these two actions are the two time, patita Kala (the past) and patitavya Kala(the future). There is no present. This is very similar to the statement in Zeno’s paradox that “An arrow in movement is always at rest”. The present is only an imaginary point like the highest limiting point in the curvature of the trajectory of a stone thrown up, where the “going up” curve and “going down” curve meet. Actually there is no break; it is a continuous curve. Similarly in the present, past and future meet. It is not a stopping point. The stone does not hang in the air at the top point.
In contrast to this, Vatsyayana, in Nyaya bhashya clearly explains that the present exists. An action is perceived as occurring in time. Time consciousness is found only in the perception of action. In the case of a fallen fruit (patita Kala) action as already ceased; in the case of fruit going to fall, action has not yet begun (patitasva Kala) when action is going on, it is perceived as “present”. “The consciousness of the present is the nucleus of the consciousness of the past and the present; the past and ‘the future are built on the present. Time is perceived only through an action. The actual happening of an action to perceived as present; and unless an action is perceived as happening or present, it can never be perceived as past or future” 17. The action is lies only in the present.
However as mentioned earlier, the Buddhists do not subscribe to duration as a factor of Time. They recognize only “succession” as the constituent of Time. Perception of succession is considered identical to the perception of changes.
In this sense, the Buddhist view is similar to that of Berkley and Hume, there is no abstract time. Unlike the Naiyayikas who hold Time as a substantial reality, Buddhist Time is a cluster of successive presentations. They deny the concept of continuous impression (dhara vahika jnana). For them, Time is a continuous flux of successive happening, a series of successive discrete moments. The apparent continuity is only illusory like the rapid succession of individual frames giving an apparent continuity through a cinema projector. There is only a linear succession; there is no simultaneity. The present has no time duration. It is only an instant or ‘time point ‘. The present is momentary as it is a function of our impression which are momentary. This is in contrast to Vedantic and Naiyayika concept that sensible time is a tract of time extending over moments – “a specious present” with a certain duration (vartamanaksanadirga:)18
According to some philosophers like Vatsyayana, sometime the present is momentary like while perceiving that a substance exists. Sometimes, the present has continuity with the past and future, like perceiving the continuity of an action like cooking etc.
Finally according to Vedanta a mental impression or psychosis continues in the field of consciousness as long as it is not interrupted or until the mind assumes the form of different objects.
Thus “Time is a continuum”
Divisions of Time in Indian Heritage
So far, we have seen that the Indian thinkers have perceived Time as an abstract entity; Some of the perceptions pointing out to the possibility of Quantum approach. However, this would rather be in the intellectual space of the elite. Practical needs demanded divisions of time in day-to-day life. Indian books on astronomy give a very detailed division of the Time upto the lowest sub division level of respiration, (prana), a time lapse of four seconds.
As commented by Rev.Ebenezer Burgess “these minute sub-divisions …. form a natural counterpart to the immense periods which we shall soon have to consider and are with the later, curiously illustrative of a fundamental trait of Hindu Character, a fantastic imaginativeness……. Thus, having no instrument by which they could measure even second with any tolerable precision they vied with one another in dividing the second down to the farthest conceivable limit of minuteness; thus seeking infinity in the other direction also. They devised and put forth as actual a frame work of Chronology reaching for millions and millions of years back into the past and forward into the future.” 22
[Interestingly, Markandeya Purana (54.12) mentions about the Earth being flat at the poles and bulging at the Equator, which is a tribute to the excellence of the ancient Indian astronomical knowledge] 23
The concept of the universe being cyclically created and destroyed, that is Time as an Eternal cycle, is mentioned in Markandeya Purana (81,57-58) as also in the Mahabharata Santi Parva.
We have seen earlier that the ancient Hindus viewed Time as an Infinity in the Virtual sense and as subject to micro divisions in practical life. The word ‘Kala’ is derived from Kal “to Goad”, as mentioned in Skanda Puranam mentions the 1.1.37-71 (Adan Kala Kalanacca)
Madhavacarya in his “Ganita Sara Sangraha” takes the unit of time measurement as that in which an atom goes beyond another atom and also talks about the pyramid of time like samaya, avali, ucchvasa, lava, ghati, muhurta, etc.
For the Yoga Sutra Bhasya 3.52, a moment (ksana) is the "ultimate minimum of time, and cannot be further divided up ... and the continuous flow of such moments is their "course" (krama) ... Their uninterrupted course is what is called "time" ... The whole world passes through a mutation in any one moment; so all the external qualities of the world are relative to this present moment". The control of the moments and their sequence leads to a discriminative gnosis, of which the final development, "the Deliverer" (taraka) "has all things for its object, and all times, without-regard-to-their-course (akrama) as its object". It will be seen that this is the same procedure that is described in the Buddhist Kalacakratantra.
It is interesting to note that the lowest sub divisions prana (respiration) is the same part of the day as the minute is of the circle, so that a respiration of time is equivalent to a minute of apparent revolution of the heavenly bodies above the earth. The astronomical division of sidereal time are
6 prana = One Vinadi(Pala)
60 Vinadis = One Nadi(24”)
60 Nadis = One day
The Puranic division of the day is somewhat different. According to this, Kala(Time) is born out of Sun. The counting starts from nimesha - twinkling of an eye (Suryayonir nimesha dia:)24. Number is the eye of Kala (Sankyacakshu: sa ucyate) and It is more visible forms are day and night. The duration of Kala is divided into five with corresponding deities:
Vatsara : Rudra
Samvatsara : Agni
Idvatsara : Soma
Anu Vatsara : Vayu
Parivatsara : Sun
Prajapati is said to comprise of all aspects of Kala past, present and future.
Sampratanagatatitakatatma prajapati:
Another set of Time – Division is given in the Siva Purana (V25.38-39) as Kshana, nimesha, muhurta, day, night, paksha, month, ritu, Year, abda, yuga, kalpa and Maha Yuga.
While the Surya Siddhantha refrains from giving sub division to the prana, as it deals only with virtual Time. Bhaskara in his Siddhanta Siromani ( 1 19, 20) states these divisions.
100 atoms(truti) = 1 speck (tatpara)
30 specks = 1 twinkling (nimesha)
18 twinkling = 1 bit(Kashtha)
30 bits = 1 minute(Kala)
30 minutes = 1 half-hour(ghatika)
2 half hour = 1 hour(Kshana)]
30 hour = 1 day.
Truti is referred to as a quarter of the time of falling of an eye lid.
Indian Mythologies and epics posit the large cosmic cycle of 4,320,000 years and even a mega cosmic cycle of 4,320,000,000 years. This cosmic cycle is first mentioned in Satapatha Brahmana whose approximate date is around 2500 BC.25
How this cosmic year is considered ? A lunar month constitute a full day and night for the forefathers(Pitrs) One tropical year is one sidereal day for the gods.
360 divine days = One divine year
12000 divine years = One Maha yuga
(12000x360)years
This Maha yuga of 4,320,000 is divided into four sub-yugas in the ratio 4:3:2:1. “Each age consists of a main period and two twilight periods. Each twilight period is one tenth of the duration of the main period………. An especially interesting point in the system is the inclusion of the two twilight periods, one before and one after, with each equal to one tenth of the main period. This, very strongly resembles the morning and evening twilight … Each real twilight lasts as long as the time during which the Sun is less than 18 degrees below the horizon and 18 degrees is one tenth of 180 degrees, or roughly the path of the sun above the horizon. In fact, the entire sequence leading to the definition of the divine day, that is the North Pole, and the divine year of 360 divine days is reached through astronomical analogy” (B.G.Siddarth “Brahmas’ Day : The great cosmic cycle and the age of the Rig Veda “)
It is interesting to note that our full day of 24 hours also consists of 86,400 seconds i.e. the day and night each consists of 43,200 seconds.
Are these great cosmic ages the results of flight of fancy ? The great French Mathematician, Laplace, did not think so. He wrote “Nevertheless the ancient reputation of the Indians does not permit us to doubt that they have always cultivated astronomy and the remarkable exactness of the mean motions which they assign to the Sun and the Moon reaching beyond very ancient observations. 26
As explained in “The celestial key to the Vedas” by Dr. B.G.Siddharth the numbers indicate the advanced astronomical knowledge of the ancient Hindus. An eclipse pattern repeats itself after roughly 18 years known as “Chaldean Saros”. It was also known that the precessional cycle takes 25800 years. The great age of Divine year (4,32,000 years) is almost exactly divisible by the eclipse cycle of 6585.32 days (The saros): as also the figure of 432000 is also divisible by the precessional cycle of 25867 years corresponding to a precession of 50.1 arc seconds per year which corresponds to the latest scientific figures.
After every 4,320,000 years i.e. at the end of great Age as specifically mentioned in the Vana Parva of Mahabharata 27, a total solar eclipse occurs in the same lunar asterisis when the Sun is at a fixed point in the ecliptic, say, the vernal equinox. Dr.B.G.Siddharth points out that the number 4320,000 has great astronomical significance. It is also interesting to see that 86,400,000 = 11x22x33x44x55.
Beyond the Maha yuga of a greater dimension is the Kalpa Which is equal to 432x107 years. This is called Brahma’s day. A hundred years of Brahmas constitute a Maha kalpa.
It is very interesting to note that the great cycle of Time in the Hindu heritage, corresponds to the modern theory of Oscillating Universe which begins with a big bang, expands further and further, at the end collapsing back to a tiny speck, which could take about 10000 million years.
One of the most enduring riddles in the history of Indian Science is: Could ancient Indians have somehow figured out the velocity of light? As we know, it was measured for the first time (though very approximately) by the Danish astronomer Ole Roemer in 1675, and more precisely in the nineteenth century. But there is an intriguing comment by Sayana on a hymn of the Rig-Veda addressed to Surya. Sayana records a tradition associated with Surya: "Thus it is remembered: [O Surya] you who traverse 2,202 yojana in half a nimesa." In Sayana's time, the yojana was about 14.5 km (as given in the Arthashastra), and a nimesa 16/75th of a second. This takes us to 299,792 km/s, which is a mere 0.15% away from the accepted velocity of light (299,792 km/s)
(As far as the dimensions of the universe are concerned, Aryabhata provides us with a astonishing coincidence. According to him, the precise figure for the "orbit of the sky" is 12,474,720,576,000 yojanas. This works out to a diameter of roughly 5x1013 km, or over 4,000 times the size of our solar system - not by any means a small place. This "orbit of the sky" is actually not the whole universe, but the space illuminated by the Sun. Now, astronomers tell us that the Sun has a magnitude of 4.7 at a distance of 10 parsecs, or about 30x1013 km; this is approximately the smallest magnitude perceivable to the human eye. Amazingly, Aryabhata's value is one-sixth of this distance, and therefore (in astronomical terms) very much of the same order !
Aryabhatta's commentator, Bhaskara I, adds,
"For us, the sky extends to as far as it is illuminated by the rays of the Sun. Beyond that, the sky is immeasurable... The sky is beyond limit; it is impossible to state its measure."
CONCLUSION :-
P.D.Ouspensky states “The Mystery of time permeates everything. It is felt in every stone which may have witnessed the glacial periods and the ichthyosaurus and the mammoth. It is felt in the tomorrow which we do not see but which perhaps sees us and which may prove to be our last day or on the contrary, a day of achievement of which we know nothing today” 28 .
Philosophers of Indian Heritage had a tremendous insight into the concept of abstract Time. The Occident developed the theories of measurable time. While the idea of physical time – even the energy view of modern physics lead to a dead end with the idea of time, thinkers like C.B.Hinton viewed time as the “other limit or boundary of one form of perception and the beginning of the another”.29
When the Indian and Western concepts coalesce, unexplored vistas can be revealed to our thought.
Western civilization with its emphasis on achieving its material objectives “here and now” and significant advancement in economic growth and Indian Civilisation with its emphasis on Absolute Time as a concept and vast time scope for achieving the spiritual goal(spread possibly over several births) are to a large extent two parallel streams. The spiritual advancement of India is extraordinary, so also is the material advancement of west in recent time. It will be a great day when the West picks up the “Eternity” of India and we, the “Practical present” of the west; with resultant symbiotic success for all.
REFERENCES :
1. Briggs, John & Peat, David F. – Seven Life Lessons of Chaos, Harper Perinnial, 1999.
2. Siddharth, B.G., “The Celestial Key to the Vedas” (Inner traditions, Rochester, Vermont), 1999, p3.
3. Bhagavath Geetha Ch VIII Ver16 – 20: trans: Siddharth, B.G. “Ancient
Indian Cosmology” History of Indian Science and Technology Vol.II (New
Delhi : Sandeep Prakasan)
4. Haug, M, - The Aitareya Brahmana of the Rig Veda, Bharatiya Publishing House, Varanasi, 1977.
5. Eggeling, J., The Sathapata Brahmana , Motilal Banarsi Das, Delhi, 1978.
6. Burgess, Ebenezer.Rev – (translator) “Surya Siddhanta”, Moti Lal Banarsi Das Publishers, Delhi, 1860.
7. Coomaraswamy, Dr.Ananda K., “Time and Eternity”, Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1993.
8. ibid p.9
9. Sankaracaraya’s Commentary on Svetasvatara Upanishad translated by Gambhirananda, Swami Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta, 1986.
10. Dasgupte, S.N., “Natural Science of the ancient Hindus”, Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, p.45.
11. Jha, Dr.Ganga Nath, translation of Prastapada’s ”Padartha dharma Sangraha”, Vizianagaram Sanskrit Series, Benaras 1895.
12. Gosha, Acarya Buddha “Visuddhi Magga”, translated by Bhikku Nanamoli, Singapore Buddhist Meditation Centre, Singapore.
13. Mundaka Upanishad 6.17 and 6
14. Thera, Narada Maha, “Abhidhammatha Sangaha”, (Manual of Abhidhamma), Kualalampur: The Buddhist Missionary Society, 1987.
15. Warren’s translation of Anguttara Nikaya in “Buddhism in Translation”
16. Coomaraswamy, Dr.Ananda K., “Time and Eternity”, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, Delhi, 1993.
17. Sinha, Jadunath, “Indian Psychology – Perception” Ch. X, London Kegan Paul Trench, Trusner & Co, 1934.
18. Bhatta, Jayanta Nyaya Manjari, Vizianagaram Sanskrit Series, 1895.
19. Misra, Parthasarathy : Sastradipika, Samvat, Benaras, 1964.
20. James, William “Principles of Psychology" , Harvard University Press, Vol. p.619-20.
21. Ouspensky, P.D., Tertium Organum, Arkana Publications, London, 1990, p.25-26.
22. Burgess, Rev.Ebenezer, – (translator) “Surya Siddhanta”, Moti Lal Banarsi Das Publishers, 1860.
23. Markandeya Purana, Indological Book House: Varanasi.
24. Brahmana Puranam 1.2.13.11
25. Saraswati, Satya Prakash, – “The Critical and Cultural Study of Satapatha Brahmanda” (Govindan Hasanand, New Delhi)
26. Iyengar, C.N.Srinivasa :The History of Ancient Indian Mathematics, World Press, Calcutta, 1967.
27. Roy, P.C. Mahabharata, Oriental Publishing Company, Calcutta.
28. Ouspensky, P.D., op. cit. P.163, Arkana Publications, London, 1990.
29. Hinton, C.H., - A new era of Thought, George Allen and Unwin, London, 1910 Pp.52, 56, 57.
*******
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Author’s Name & Address :
S.Ram Mohan, IRAS, Resi: No.687, 46th Street,
Financial Adviser, 9th Sector, KK Nagar West,
Integral Coach Factory, Chennai 600 078, India.
Chennai 600 038. E Mail: sethurammohan@yahoo.co.in
India. srammohanfa@rediffmail.com
Abstract of the Presentation on
“The Concept of Time in Indian Heritage”
- S.Ram Mohan
1. Time is not relative or linear entity; it is indivisible and abstract. It is a continuum. Absolute Time is the source for all relative time.
2. All aspects of Time, procession and recession are parts of stasis (Sthithi)
3. God is equated with Time. It is the substratum for the entire universe.
4. Vedanta states that a realized person goes beyond axis of Time.
5. Brahman is considered as of two facets – time and timeless; a Kala and akala
6. Specific time (Vigraha) is the ultimate source for all creations
7. Different schools of thoughts have different perceptions:
a Yoga delineates that continuous flow of indivisible basic unit of time (ksana)
b. Sankhya view says that infinite time is a non-entity and describes the paramanu concept and absolute unit of time.
c. In Nyaya Vaishesika, time is a non-perceivable separate entity. It can be perceived only through inference from change of states in the objects:
d. Madhva philosophy talks of the “Pyramid of Time”
e. Buddhist philosophy, stressing on ephemerality, describes the five fold aggregates in the course of time. Buddhahood is “Timeless awakening”.
f. Jainese texts describe the Vartana (continuity of perception) and atomistic existence of moments.
Apart from these ideas of Time in Indian heritage, different perception of time and its division is also discussed on the paper.
The Dictionary of Philosophy defines time thus: “Time is the general medium in which all events take place in succession or appear to take place in succession.” This is a typically western approach to time. Time, in Indian Heritage, goes far beyond this. It is not a mere quantity, a numerical measurement of seconds, minutes, hours and years. It is considered as “an energy of the universe, a river to be navigated, a bosom to find rest”
There is a popular Hindu Mythological story in which sage Narada was asked by Lord Krishna to fetch a cup of water for him, while discussing the concepts of nescience and delusion. Narada while going to fetch water from the river, falls in love with a girl and marries her. So many things successively happen in his life. Finally at the last hour of his family life, he cries aloud at his misfortune. Then he hears the voice of Lord Krishna “why you have taken so long to fetch a cup of water?” Then Narada realizes that while he had relatively experienced a long duration of time, in actuality, it has passed off in a trice. The story recalls William Blake’s assertion that it is possible to experience “the world in a grain of sand and eternity in an hour”. Thus ancient Indian civilization came out with the brilliant idea of "Relative Time and Absolute Time". The story above demonstrates that the relative time is not the measure of activity; or two similar events can have two independent measures of time ! In a simple given experience there is no perception of time, just as there is no concept of distance when there is only one point.
The Idea of Time in Indian Knowledge Systems
In the Indian Heritage, Time is not a linear, single-directional movement, like an arrow speeding from past to future. It is “no more than a convenient delusion of our mechanical world, connecting a living vibrant time with the interior curling details of a fractal.” 1 When we enter into the curvature of eternal time, we experience a fullness of true inner rhythm of life.
The idea of Time itself was quite advanced in Indian Heritage. “This astronomy is surprisingly advanced - the concept in fact can be compared with those of Newtonian times and in some cases even later times ; much of the knowledge, however, was lost. “ 2
The concept of the Mega cycle is mentioned in the Hindu epics. For instance Lord Krishna tells Arjuna in Bhagavat Gita “All worlds from Brahma’s world (universe) are periodic, oh Arjuna !.
Those who know the day and night know that a day of Brahma is thousand yugas long and night is a thousand yugas long.
From the unmanifested, all the manifested things spring forth on the arrival of the day (Brahma) ; on the onset of night, all this sink into what is called the unmanifested.
Partha, this multitude of created things having existed over and over again and helplessly destroyed at the on set of night spring forth on the onset of the day” 3
Very interestingly Sankara in his commentary for the verse 16 says that the word Ahoratra refer to those “who can measure time” i.e. those who have gone beyond the axis of time (Kala : Sankhya vido jana :)
For instance, some of the advanced concepts like the sphericity of Earth and the cause of seasons are clearly mentioned in our ancient texts. The Aitareya Brahmana declares” The sun does never set or rise; when people think the sun is setting, it is not so; for after having arrived at the end of the day, it makes itself produce two opposite effects, making night to what is below and day to what is on the other side. Having reached the end of the night, it makes itself produce two opposite effects, making day to what is below and night to what is on the other side: The sun never sets”. 4
The concept of cyclical nature of time, time as curvature is given in this beautiful statement in the satapata brahmana (1.6.1.3) ”Even while the foremost were still ploughing and sowing, those behind them were already engaged in reaping and threshing.” 5
According to Dr.David Frawley, in the familiar Vedic chant, ‘Apam Pushpam’, the term apa: indicates waves, suggesting vibration. It often refers to space. Later Vedanta speaks about the “ocean of consciousness” in the Astha Vakra Gita. In the Aghamarshana Sukta of Rig Veda (X 190) it speaks of creation as coming from Rit to Satyam, to Tapas, to Ratri and then to the Ocean (Samudra). From the ocean, Time (Samvatsara) is born. Maitrayani Upanishad also mentions of the connection between (prana) life force and Time: prana being the inner sun that get measured by the movement of the outer sun.
The Hindu concept talks of Rhythm or universal order which is manifested as Time. Time Rhythm range from the fast ticking of the atom to the expansion of the entire cosmos - Time unfolding within the geological process of the Earth the change of the season, the life cycle of a fly etc.
“The metaphysical doctrine simply contrasts time as a continuum with the eternity that is not in time, and so cannot properly be called “everlasting”, but coincides with the real present” or “now” of which temporal experience is impossible” (Dr.Ananda K.Coomaraswamy in “Time and Eternity”)
Time itself or Kala is connected to Lord Siva in Indian Heritage. Siva is called Maha Kala – “the great Time”. His consort Kali personifies the energy of Time. According to the Seminal work in Vedic Astronomy, ‘Surya Siddhanta’ “Time is the destroyer of the world ; another Time has for its nature to bring to pass. This latter according as it is gross or minute, is called by two names, real (murta) and unreal (amurta) (verse 10)6 .
As mentioned here, Time is, in a metaphorical sense, the great destroyer of all things; as such, he is identified with Death and with Yama the ruler of the dead. Lord Krishna also declares that “I am Kala”. As seen above, Time, according to Surya Siddhanta, has both its imaginary and practical divisions ; the former is called Murta(embodied), the latter amurta ( virtual or Unembodied) We can see here the forerunner of the modern concept of virtual time. The epithet ‘kalanatmaka’ applied to the actual time in the verse, interprets it as an “object of knowledge.” The Surya Siddhanta delineates that ‘what begins with respirations (pra_na) is called real; that what begins with atoms (truti) is called unreal.
“The Surya Siddhanta with commendable moderation refrains from giving the imaginary sub-divisions of respiration which make up “unreal time”(Rev.Ebenezer Burgess), which are stated in Bhaskara’s Siddhanta Ciromani.
In AV.19.53 and 54, cited above, "Time" - absolutely - is the source of all relative times ; not itself a duration, but rather the Timeless, Eternity, to which all moveable time is ever present. It is in these terms that the Maitri Upanishad distinghishes the "two forms" (dve rupe) of Brahman, i.e. aspects of the two natures (dvaitibhava) of the single essence (tad ekam), as "time and the Timeless (kalas-cakalas-ca): "From one who worships, thinking "Time is Brahma" (katam brahmeti), time(kala, also death) reflows afar. As it has been said:
From Time flow forth all beings,
From Time advance to their full growth,
And in Time, again, win home, -
"Time" is the formed(murti) and formless, both.
There are, indeed, two forms of Brahma; time, and the Timeless. That which is prior to the sun is the Timeless(akala) and partless (akala) ; but that which begins with the sun is the time that has parts (sakala), and its form is that of the year .
Concepts of Time in various Indian Traditions:
Let us start from a metaphysical view of Time. From a metaphysical point of view, “for any conscious functioning in terms of time and space, “now” succeeds “now” without interruption. None of these “nows” has any duration and that as measures, all alike are zeros… It is a matter of relativity. It is we who move, while the ‘now’ is unmoved and only seems to move – much as the sun only seems to rise and set because the earth revolves” 7.
Different systems of philosophy and thought in Indian Heritage have their own concept of Time. A brief presentation is given in the succeeding paragraphs :
In Hinduism – Vedic Concepts:
From a basic point of view, all measures of time from micro divisions to cosmic years are united in the union of the triad of apparent time procession(pravrtti) recession(nivritti) and stasis (sthiti) Time (Kala) unites these three and by these the entire universe is united(samhita) that of the now.
Aitareya Aranyaka quotes Rig Veda 10.55.2 when it says “great is that hidden Name and far extending whereby thou made past and future (bhutam … bhavyam) 8
In the Vedas, Time is equated with the Consciousness Time (Kala) is the source of the divisions of time. It unites procession recession and stasis.
“Kalo gatinivrtti sthiti: samdadhati” (Sankhayana Aranyaka 7.20)
Atvarva Veda Samhita also echos the same idea “Sent forth by Time (Kala) what hath been and shall be stand apart… Time hath engendered what hath been and shall be’. In Katha Upanishad also Yama tells Naciketas “Time is the Lord of what hath been and shall be. He is both today and tomorrow”(KU 4.13)
As mentioned in the Atarva Veda referred to above, Absolute Time is the source of all relative times. It is not a duration but the Eternity on which all moveable times abide. The Absolute Time and Relative Time are clearly delineated in the Maitri Upanishad. It says that the single Brahman (Tadekam) has two facets – time and the timeless (Kalas ca Kalasca). The same idea is expressed in Aitareya Brahmana (3.49) “Day and night are death but they do not affect the divinity Aditya; for they are only the occasions of his rising and setting. But really he never sets”
References in the Upanishad to Kala as Brahman
Chandogya Upanishad (3.2.3) says that, that for a person who has realised the ultimate “It is evermore high noon”. For one who offers worship meditating on Time as Brahman (Kalam Brahmat), there is no death.
The transcendent and immanent Atma is called Kala who devours all that exists as his food (Maitri Upanishad 6.2) Lord of what has been and what shall be He alone is today and tomorrow (Kena Upanishad)(2.14)
The latest one among the major Upanishads, Svetasvatara Upanishad starts with the statement “Time, inherent nature, destiny, chance, the elements, or the individual soul, cannot be the source, because they exist for the Soul. The non-independent soul, bound by joy and sorrow cannot be the source.”
Kala: Swabhavo niyatir yadruccha
Bhutani yoni: purusha iti cintya
Samyoga esham tatvatmabhava
Datapyanisa: sukha du: khe heto ||
Sankaracarya, in his commentary on this verse, says that “time is that which is the cause of transformation of all entities. Time by itself, or in combination with space and causation, cannot be the original source, because they are not independent entities.” 9. Svetasvatara Upanishad describes Atma as one who is partless, the constant among the inconstant, the one of the many, all-creator, omniscient, immortal, omnipresent - He is the creator of time (Kala Karah) (Svet up 6.13-29) At the command of that imperishable atma, the moment hours… and years exist apart. (Brahadaranayakam 3.8.9)
The Yoga Sutra Bhashya 3.52 describes a “moment” (Ksana) as the ultimate minimum of time that cannot be further divided up and the continuous flow of such moments is their course. The whole world passes through a mutation in one moment so all the external qualities of the world are relative to this present moment.
Concepts of Time in other schools of Hindu Thought:
For the Nyaya vaiseshika School, time is a separate entity. Only because time exists as a separate entity, our ideas of succession, simultaneity, quickness tardiness etc. are perceived. As per Nyayakundali “Our perception of things can only occur directly and immediately with reference to objective things alone, and not time, as time is not perceivable. Changes in objects make us infer the existence of time behind such changes, from our motions of old and new of past and present. “Though time is one, due to its association with diverse kind of things it appears as many.” 10 This is very similar to the western idea, especially Kantian philosophy.
Naiyayikas like Jayanta Bhatta say that time is experienced through visual organs as a “fact of experience”. While we see an object, we see that as existing “now” i.e. in addition to the perception of object a parameter of time also enters into it.
According to Prasastapada 11, “Time is the cause of the contrary notions of priority, simultaneity, succession, late, soon, etc. It is the cause or basis of the production, persistence and destruction or cessation of all produced things as all these are spoken of in terms of time. It is also the basis of such conventional usages as ksana… all measures of time, from a fraction of a second to millennia”. Qualities of time according Prasastapada are number, dimension, separateness, conjunction and disfunction.
According to the Sankhya System, infinite time is a non entity. Time is only a creation of the understanding (buddhi nirmana) Time can be divided and subdivided till it can not be divided any further. Its smallest unit is considered to be that which is taken by an atom to move in its own dimension of space. Any change in a substance is ultimately reflected in the atoms (Paramanu) of that substance. The transit of paramanu from one point in space to the next succeeding parent is the absolute unit of time Sankhya also asserts that only the “Now” exits by which universe evolves in that one single moment.
According to Yoga School, Time is the one by which the growth and decay of things are noticed. The movement of the sun activates different kinds of activities during the day and during the night.
According to Ramanuja’s commentary on Brahma Sutras (2.2.31) Time is a particular substance which is the cause of the current distinction of past, present and future.
Concept of Time in Buddhism:
Buddhist texts, both in Thera vada and Mahayana traditions, have dealt with the concept of Time. Buddhist doctrine talks about instant movement “(khana or “kshana” meaning glance)”. Time as period is to be distinguished from Time, the principle. Buddhist doctrine is emphatic about the unreality of being (satta) and the soul (atta) The brevity of life, as graphically explained in the Buddhist texts life, is like a dew drop on the tip of a blade of grass when the sun rises. Such is the lifetime of men (Visuddhi Maaga 231). Further, in the last analysis, “the movement of life (jivita khano) of being is just as over-brief (atiparithi) as the turning of a single thought, like the turning of a chariot wheel which turns by means of just one place on its rim, so is the life of beings, that of a single moment of thought and when that this ends, the being is said to have ended. In the past thought moment, one lived …….. in the future thought moment one will live ……. In the present one is alive.”(Visuddhi Magga)
Buddha perceives the world as in momentary dissolution “In the present lives the world and with the breakup of a thought it dies (paccupannena jivati cittabhanga mat_ loke)” From the unseen come forth born beings and broken-up pass into the unseen, Like a flash of lighting in the akasa, they arrive and pass away12.
This is very similar to the idea expressed in the Upanishads: This world measured by a thought, the conflux ….. just a thought (idam cittamatram uttam eva samsaram) 13
The commentary on Abhidhamma clearly explains the concept of time in Buddhist philosophy. According to philosophers like Buddha Ghosha, it is a mere concept which does not exist in an absolute sense What space is to matter time is to mind. Time is past (atta) present (paccupanna) and future(anagata)
The Abhidhamma Text 14 defines the past “as that which has gone beyond its own state or the moment of genesis, development and cessation (attano sabhavam uppadadikkhanam va atta atikkanta atita).
Present is that which on account of this and that reason enters, goes, exists above the moments of genesis etc (tam tam karanam paticca uppadadikhanam uddham punna, gata, pavatta)
Future is that which has not yet reached both states (tadubhayam pi na agata sampatha)
According to Abhidhamma, each consciousness consists of three phases – uppada(genesis), thiti(developments) and bhanga(dissolution). Each thought- moment is followed by another. Time is thus the sine-qua-non of the succession of mental states. The fundamental unit of time is the duration of thought- moments. The rapidity of these fleeting thought-moments is such that within the brief duration of a flash of lighting, there may be billions of thought moments.
“Past is gone. Future has not come. We live only for one thought moment and that slips into the irrevocable past. In one sense there is only the eternal Now. In another sense the so called present is the transitional stage from the future to the past” (From Naradas’ commentary on the chapter Alambana Sangaho of the Abhidhamma Text)
Buddha Ghosha explains that as Nibbana is eternal, it does not belong to the past, present or future. It is timeless. Similar reply was given by Sri Ramana Maharishi to the question “How long did your awakening through death-experience take?” He said “it could be a fraction of a minute; it is beyond time.”
The awakened one, the Buddha is timeless: akaliko(Anguttara Nikaya 4.359)15 and he transcends the aeons (mega cycles of time - Kappatito Vipamutto (Sutta Nipata 3)-373) They call him the “Awakened One” who discerns the aeons, the flux of things in which they fall and rise one for whom birth is at an end. For him there is no past or future” (ibid 1.141)
According to Visuddhi Magga, a Buddha envisages past or future aeons directly “it is as if they formed a circle, (beginningless and endless cycle) of which he is the center, no further from one than any other point in the circumference” 16
Contrasting to the aeons of practice or the length of the spiritual path, the ‘awakening’ is instantaneous: the aeonic time thus becomes the instantaneous “now”, like the sudden release of arrow. Vasubandhu in Abhisamayalankara says that abhisambodhi, the great awakening, is single-instantaneous (eka-kshana) or timeless. This is also confirmed by the experience of Sri Ramana Maharishi.
Perception of Time:
While there appears to be some agreement among Nyaya-Vaiseshika and to certain extent the Jain schools about the existence of Time, Jainese schools talk of Vartana (continuity of perception) and atomistic existence of moments ; the Buddhists and the Sankhya School deny the objective existence of time. The Vedantins also hold similar but modified views. The perception of time among the various schools is an interesting area of study.
Generally the “Indian philosophers are of the opinion that time is a co-efficient of all consciousness including external perception and internal perception. But they do not recognize the perception as an independent entity. According to them, there is no sense for empty time as an independent entity; succession and duration are the two important constituents of time.” 17 Perception of succession is derived from the perception of changes and the perception of duration is derived from the perception of ”specious present” The perception of specious present is considered as the nucleus of all our time – consciousness. The consciousness of consciousness past and future are brought to the consciousness respectively by memory and expectation.
Kant has a similar doctrine. He considers time as a purely subjective form of our perception. “Conditioned as we are by the properties of our perceiving apparatus, we create time as a convenience for perception of the outside world.” Kant says. “In other words, we perceive reality as though through a narrow slit. What we see through this slit, we call it present. What we saw but see no longer, we call the past and what we do not see at all but expect to see we call the future”
According to Vedantins, time is a co-efficient of all perception. Can a time be an object of visual perception ? Does it have magnitude (mahattva) or sensible colour (udbhutarupavattva) ? As mentioned earlier, Jayanta Bhatta says that time is perceived through the visual organ as a “fact of experience” 18. An unambiguous experience of the existence of an object existing “now”, like “the jar exists now” (idanim ghatam vartate) demonstrates that in addition to the object, an element of time viz. the present time also enters into the perception of the object. “ The present time is perceived as a qualification of every object of perception. Whenever an object, event, or action is perceived, it is not perceived as timeless but as existing or occurring in time, or qualified by the present time (Jadunath Sinha: P111). The perception is not limited to visual perception “. It is perceived by all the sense organs, external or internal as a qualification of their objects. 19
One important point to be considered here is that time is a function of “succession”. It is not possible to cognise it apart from changes that occurs in it, which is indicated by temporal flags like “before”, “after”, “earlier”, “later”, etc. As Jayanta says 18 Time is identical with action or change. Time and action are synonymous. Hence there is no perception of time at all, but only that of actions” (karyamatravalambana).
The fact, however, is that time is a constituent factor, into the perception of action, as a qualifying adjunct (Viseshana) of events or actions. Actions are never perceived without being qualified by time. Time is qualifying adjunct for all actions and objects. Similarly there is no perception of empty time bereft of object or actions. As William James says “We have no sense for empty time. We can no more intuit a duration than we can intuit an extension devoid of all sensible content”. 20
What is the “Present” or “Now”:
In the remarkable words of William James “Let anyone try to attend to the present moment of time. One of the most baffling experience occurs. Where is it, this present ? It has melted in our grasp, fled ere we could touch it, gone in the moment of becoming…. It is only as entering into the living and moving organization of a much wider tract of time that the strict present is apprehended at all. It is in fact an altogether ideal abstraction, not only never realized in sense, but probably never even conceived of by those unaccustomed to philosophic meditation. Reflection leads us to the conclusion that it must exist, but that it does exist can never be a fact of our immediate experience. The only fact of our immediate experience is what Mr.Clay has well called the “specious present” 20
Mr.Ouspensky defines present as “the moment of transition from the future into the past-the moment of a transition of a phenomenon from one non-existence to the another . Only during this brief moment does a phenomenon really exists; before it exists as a potentiality and after as a memory….. We must admit that the past, the present and the future do not differ from one another in any way that the only thing that exists is the present……. the “Eternal Now” of Indian philosophy. But we do not see it because at every given moment, we are only aware of a small fragment of this presence” 21.
However there are also arguments, which are adduced to prove that there is no ‘present’ : A fruit falling from a tree, has only a ‘traversed space’ and ‘space to be traversed’ before it completes its action. There is no third space. Corresponding to these two actions are the two time, patita Kala (the past) and patitavya Kala(the future). There is no present. This is very similar to the statement in Zeno’s paradox that “An arrow in movement is always at rest”. The present is only an imaginary point like the highest limiting point in the curvature of the trajectory of a stone thrown up, where the “going up” curve and “going down” curve meet. Actually there is no break; it is a continuous curve. Similarly in the present, past and future meet. It is not a stopping point. The stone does not hang in the air at the top point.
In contrast to this, Vatsyayana, in Nyaya bhashya clearly explains that the present exists. An action is perceived as occurring in time. Time consciousness is found only in the perception of action. In the case of a fallen fruit (patita Kala) action as already ceased; in the case of fruit going to fall, action has not yet begun (patitasva Kala) when action is going on, it is perceived as “present”. “The consciousness of the present is the nucleus of the consciousness of the past and the present; the past and ‘the future are built on the present. Time is perceived only through an action. The actual happening of an action to perceived as present; and unless an action is perceived as happening or present, it can never be perceived as past or future” 17. The action is lies only in the present.
However as mentioned earlier, the Buddhists do not subscribe to duration as a factor of Time. They recognize only “succession” as the constituent of Time. Perception of succession is considered identical to the perception of changes.
In this sense, the Buddhist view is similar to that of Berkley and Hume, there is no abstract time. Unlike the Naiyayikas who hold Time as a substantial reality, Buddhist Time is a cluster of successive presentations. They deny the concept of continuous impression (dhara vahika jnana). For them, Time is a continuous flux of successive happening, a series of successive discrete moments. The apparent continuity is only illusory like the rapid succession of individual frames giving an apparent continuity through a cinema projector. There is only a linear succession; there is no simultaneity. The present has no time duration. It is only an instant or ‘time point ‘. The present is momentary as it is a function of our impression which are momentary. This is in contrast to Vedantic and Naiyayika concept that sensible time is a tract of time extending over moments – “a specious present” with a certain duration (vartamanaksanadirga:)18
According to some philosophers like Vatsyayana, sometime the present is momentary like while perceiving that a substance exists. Sometimes, the present has continuity with the past and future, like perceiving the continuity of an action like cooking etc.
Finally according to Vedanta a mental impression or psychosis continues in the field of consciousness as long as it is not interrupted or until the mind assumes the form of different objects.
Thus “Time is a continuum”
Divisions of Time in Indian Heritage
So far, we have seen that the Indian thinkers have perceived Time as an abstract entity; Some of the perceptions pointing out to the possibility of Quantum approach. However, this would rather be in the intellectual space of the elite. Practical needs demanded divisions of time in day-to-day life. Indian books on astronomy give a very detailed division of the Time upto the lowest sub division level of respiration, (prana), a time lapse of four seconds.
As commented by Rev.Ebenezer Burgess “these minute sub-divisions …. form a natural counterpart to the immense periods which we shall soon have to consider and are with the later, curiously illustrative of a fundamental trait of Hindu Character, a fantastic imaginativeness……. Thus, having no instrument by which they could measure even second with any tolerable precision they vied with one another in dividing the second down to the farthest conceivable limit of minuteness; thus seeking infinity in the other direction also. They devised and put forth as actual a frame work of Chronology reaching for millions and millions of years back into the past and forward into the future.” 22
[Interestingly, Markandeya Purana (54.12) mentions about the Earth being flat at the poles and bulging at the Equator, which is a tribute to the excellence of the ancient Indian astronomical knowledge] 23
The concept of the universe being cyclically created and destroyed, that is Time as an Eternal cycle, is mentioned in Markandeya Purana (81,57-58) as also in the Mahabharata Santi Parva.
We have seen earlier that the ancient Hindus viewed Time as an Infinity in the Virtual sense and as subject to micro divisions in practical life. The word ‘Kala’ is derived from Kal “to Goad”, as mentioned in Skanda Puranam mentions the 1.1.37-71 (Adan Kala Kalanacca)
Madhavacarya in his “Ganita Sara Sangraha” takes the unit of time measurement as that in which an atom goes beyond another atom and also talks about the pyramid of time like samaya, avali, ucchvasa, lava, ghati, muhurta, etc.
For the Yoga Sutra Bhasya 3.52, a moment (ksana) is the "ultimate minimum of time, and cannot be further divided up ... and the continuous flow of such moments is their "course" (krama) ... Their uninterrupted course is what is called "time" ... The whole world passes through a mutation in any one moment; so all the external qualities of the world are relative to this present moment". The control of the moments and their sequence leads to a discriminative gnosis, of which the final development, "the Deliverer" (taraka) "has all things for its object, and all times, without-regard-to-their-course (akrama) as its object". It will be seen that this is the same procedure that is described in the Buddhist Kalacakratantra.
It is interesting to note that the lowest sub divisions prana (respiration) is the same part of the day as the minute is of the circle, so that a respiration of time is equivalent to a minute of apparent revolution of the heavenly bodies above the earth. The astronomical division of sidereal time are
6 prana = One Vinadi(Pala)
60 Vinadis = One Nadi(24”)
60 Nadis = One day
The Puranic division of the day is somewhat different. According to this, Kala(Time) is born out of Sun. The counting starts from nimesha - twinkling of an eye (Suryayonir nimesha dia:)24. Number is the eye of Kala (Sankyacakshu: sa ucyate) and It is more visible forms are day and night. The duration of Kala is divided into five with corresponding deities:
Vatsara : Rudra
Samvatsara : Agni
Idvatsara : Soma
Anu Vatsara : Vayu
Parivatsara : Sun
Prajapati is said to comprise of all aspects of Kala past, present and future.
Sampratanagatatitakatatma prajapati:
Another set of Time – Division is given in the Siva Purana (V25.38-39) as Kshana, nimesha, muhurta, day, night, paksha, month, ritu, Year, abda, yuga, kalpa and Maha Yuga.
While the Surya Siddhantha refrains from giving sub division to the prana, as it deals only with virtual Time. Bhaskara in his Siddhanta Siromani ( 1 19, 20) states these divisions.
100 atoms(truti) = 1 speck (tatpara)
30 specks = 1 twinkling (nimesha)
18 twinkling = 1 bit(Kashtha)
30 bits = 1 minute(Kala)
30 minutes = 1 half-hour(ghatika)
2 half hour = 1 hour(Kshana)]
30 hour = 1 day.
Truti is referred to as a quarter of the time of falling of an eye lid.
Indian Mythologies and epics posit the large cosmic cycle of 4,320,000 years and even a mega cosmic cycle of 4,320,000,000 years. This cosmic cycle is first mentioned in Satapatha Brahmana whose approximate date is around 2500 BC.25
How this cosmic year is considered ? A lunar month constitute a full day and night for the forefathers(Pitrs) One tropical year is one sidereal day for the gods.
360 divine days = One divine year
12000 divine years = One Maha yuga
(12000x360)years
This Maha yuga of 4,320,000 is divided into four sub-yugas in the ratio 4:3:2:1. “Each age consists of a main period and two twilight periods. Each twilight period is one tenth of the duration of the main period………. An especially interesting point in the system is the inclusion of the two twilight periods, one before and one after, with each equal to one tenth of the main period. This, very strongly resembles the morning and evening twilight … Each real twilight lasts as long as the time during which the Sun is less than 18 degrees below the horizon and 18 degrees is one tenth of 180 degrees, or roughly the path of the sun above the horizon. In fact, the entire sequence leading to the definition of the divine day, that is the North Pole, and the divine year of 360 divine days is reached through astronomical analogy” (B.G.Siddarth “Brahmas’ Day : The great cosmic cycle and the age of the Rig Veda “)
It is interesting to note that our full day of 24 hours also consists of 86,400 seconds i.e. the day and night each consists of 43,200 seconds.
Are these great cosmic ages the results of flight of fancy ? The great French Mathematician, Laplace, did not think so. He wrote “Nevertheless the ancient reputation of the Indians does not permit us to doubt that they have always cultivated astronomy and the remarkable exactness of the mean motions which they assign to the Sun and the Moon reaching beyond very ancient observations. 26
As explained in “The celestial key to the Vedas” by Dr. B.G.Siddharth the numbers indicate the advanced astronomical knowledge of the ancient Hindus. An eclipse pattern repeats itself after roughly 18 years known as “Chaldean Saros”. It was also known that the precessional cycle takes 25800 years. The great age of Divine year (4,32,000 years) is almost exactly divisible by the eclipse cycle of 6585.32 days (The saros): as also the figure of 432000 is also divisible by the precessional cycle of 25867 years corresponding to a precession of 50.1 arc seconds per year which corresponds to the latest scientific figures.
After every 4,320,000 years i.e. at the end of great Age as specifically mentioned in the Vana Parva of Mahabharata 27, a total solar eclipse occurs in the same lunar asterisis when the Sun is at a fixed point in the ecliptic, say, the vernal equinox. Dr.B.G.Siddharth points out that the number 4320,000 has great astronomical significance. It is also interesting to see that 86,400,000 = 11x22x33x44x55.
Beyond the Maha yuga of a greater dimension is the Kalpa Which is equal to 432x107 years. This is called Brahma’s day. A hundred years of Brahmas constitute a Maha kalpa.
It is very interesting to note that the great cycle of Time in the Hindu heritage, corresponds to the modern theory of Oscillating Universe which begins with a big bang, expands further and further, at the end collapsing back to a tiny speck, which could take about 10000 million years.
One of the most enduring riddles in the history of Indian Science is: Could ancient Indians have somehow figured out the velocity of light? As we know, it was measured for the first time (though very approximately) by the Danish astronomer Ole Roemer in 1675, and more precisely in the nineteenth century. But there is an intriguing comment by Sayana on a hymn of the Rig-Veda addressed to Surya. Sayana records a tradition associated with Surya: "Thus it is remembered: [O Surya] you who traverse 2,202 yojana in half a nimesa." In Sayana's time, the yojana was about 14.5 km (as given in the Arthashastra), and a nimesa 16/75th of a second. This takes us to 299,792 km/s, which is a mere 0.15% away from the accepted velocity of light (299,792 km/s)
(As far as the dimensions of the universe are concerned, Aryabhata provides us with a astonishing coincidence. According to him, the precise figure for the "orbit of the sky" is 12,474,720,576,000 yojanas. This works out to a diameter of roughly 5x1013 km, or over 4,000 times the size of our solar system - not by any means a small place. This "orbit of the sky" is actually not the whole universe, but the space illuminated by the Sun. Now, astronomers tell us that the Sun has a magnitude of 4.7 at a distance of 10 parsecs, or about 30x1013 km; this is approximately the smallest magnitude perceivable to the human eye. Amazingly, Aryabhata's value is one-sixth of this distance, and therefore (in astronomical terms) very much of the same order !
Aryabhatta's commentator, Bhaskara I, adds,
"For us, the sky extends to as far as it is illuminated by the rays of the Sun. Beyond that, the sky is immeasurable... The sky is beyond limit; it is impossible to state its measure."
CONCLUSION :-
P.D.Ouspensky states “The Mystery of time permeates everything. It is felt in every stone which may have witnessed the glacial periods and the ichthyosaurus and the mammoth. It is felt in the tomorrow which we do not see but which perhaps sees us and which may prove to be our last day or on the contrary, a day of achievement of which we know nothing today” 28 .
Philosophers of Indian Heritage had a tremendous insight into the concept of abstract Time. The Occident developed the theories of measurable time. While the idea of physical time – even the energy view of modern physics lead to a dead end with the idea of time, thinkers like C.B.Hinton viewed time as the “other limit or boundary of one form of perception and the beginning of the another”.29
When the Indian and Western concepts coalesce, unexplored vistas can be revealed to our thought.
Western civilization with its emphasis on achieving its material objectives “here and now” and significant advancement in economic growth and Indian Civilisation with its emphasis on Absolute Time as a concept and vast time scope for achieving the spiritual goal(spread possibly over several births) are to a large extent two parallel streams. The spiritual advancement of India is extraordinary, so also is the material advancement of west in recent time. It will be a great day when the West picks up the “Eternity” of India and we, the “Practical present” of the west; with resultant symbiotic success for all.
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3. Bhagavath Geetha Ch VIII Ver16 – 20: trans: Siddharth, B.G. “Ancient
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8. ibid p.9
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*******
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Author’s Name & Address :
S.Ram Mohan, IRAS, Resi: No.687, 46th Street,
Financial Adviser, 9th Sector, KK Nagar West,
Integral Coach Factory, Chennai 600 078, India.
Chennai 600 038. E Mail: sethurammohan@yahoo.co.in
India. srammohanfa@rediffmail.com
Abstract of the Presentation on
“The Concept of Time in Indian Heritage”
- S.Ram Mohan
1. Time is not relative or linear entity; it is indivisible and abstract. It is a continuum. Absolute Time is the source for all relative time.
2. All aspects of Time, procession and recession are parts of stasis (Sthithi)
3. God is equated with Time. It is the substratum for the entire universe.
4. Vedanta states that a realized person goes beyond axis of Time.
5. Brahman is considered as of two facets – time and timeless; a Kala and akala
6. Specific time (Vigraha) is the ultimate source for all creations
7. Different schools of thoughts have different perceptions:
a Yoga delineates that continuous flow of indivisible basic unit of time (ksana)
b. Sankhya view says that infinite time is a non-entity and describes the paramanu concept and absolute unit of time.
c. In Nyaya Vaishesika, time is a non-perceivable separate entity. It can be perceived only through inference from change of states in the objects:
d. Madhva philosophy talks of the “Pyramid of Time”
e. Buddhist philosophy, stressing on ephemerality, describes the five fold aggregates in the course of time. Buddhahood is “Timeless awakening”.
f. Jainese texts describe the Vartana (continuity of perception) and atomistic existence of moments.
Apart from these ideas of Time in Indian heritage, different perception of time and its division is also discussed on the paper.
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