In the month of May 2007 I was invited to speak at the Mahidol University of Bangkok during the SSEASR Conference. I gave a talk on Yogachara Buddhism there. During this occasion, I had the opportunity to visit various Buddhist temples at Bangkok. They include the magnificent ones like Emerald Buddha, Golden Buddha, Buddha in his Maha nirvana time etc. It is very interesting to note that in the Sanctum Sanctorum of all Buddha temples, while the right side wall is covered with pictures depicting instances in Buddha’s life, the left side has paintings exclusively from Ramayana. For a Thai devotee, Hinduism is as important as Mahayana Buddhism.
During the visit of one of the temple, I learnt this great truth about ignorance obscuring Reality.
One of these famous temples has a Buddha icon nearly 17 feet tall, which is known till the beginning of 20th century as “Terracotta Buddha temple” . The temple was established in the 13th century with its huge icon of Buddha, for several centuries it was worshipped by the devotees as “Terracotta Buddha”. One day the authorities decided to shift the Terracotta Buddha image to a place several kilometers away, probably to do some repairs to the temple. They put the Terracotta Buddha on a truck and were moving it. When they were half way through, a heavy downpour started. The rain was so heavy that the clay image of Buddha started dissolving. They tried to protect the image with tarpaulins and umbrellas, but to no effect. There was a very heavy wind which blew away the tarpaulins and umbrellas. Due to the heavy rain, the Buddha icon in clay was dissolving fast. The devotees were grief-stricken. They were wondering whether it would have been wiser to have left the temple un-repaired rather than allowing the centuries old terracotta Buddha icon to get dissolved in the heavy downpour.
Presto! A wonderful thing was happening. As the clay was dissolving, from within the clay was emerging a golden Buddha idol! as the idol there was of clay. After a short while all the clay, which was covering the idol got completely dissolved. The people were witnessing the presence of a resplendent “Golden Buddha” appearing before them in all its grandeur.
What really happened? It was really a golden Buddha at the time of its installation in the 13th century. After some time Thailand was experiencing foreign invasions. Fearing that the invaders would take away the golden image, which was 5.5 tons of solid gold, the devotees covered the image with clay. Thinking that it was only a Terracotta Buddha, the invaders left it untouched. That generation knowing that it was a golden Buddha inside the clay, worshipped Buddha in that form. As many years passed by, the subsequent generations were not aware of this fact. They truly believed in what they saw externally and worshipped it as a Terracotta Buddha only. Thus their minds were conditioned by externalities. Once the clay dissolved what is truly inside came out with all its effulgence. It is today worshipped as the golden Buddha in Bangkok.
It is happening to all of us everyday, we assume ourselves to be only a body-mind-intellect complex and nothing beyond it. We are conditioned by our awareness of our body, our thinking process and our analysis of the phenomena. These are only externalities within each one of us. It is only a clay that surrounds the wonderful Immanence within us. Within each one of us is the golden Buddha, the great immanent Lord who is also transcendent, he is the great Shiva, who is constantly performing his cosmic dance. In our hearts we not aware of it as our minds are conditioned by what we see, do and think. It is like the Thais seeing only the clay image and concluding it as only terracotta Buddha. As the rain dissolved the clay, the golden icon which is the true-one inside is revealed. Likewise when the spiritual sadhaha and devotion dissolves our mental conditioning, the Lord within ourselves is also revealed. This is the lesson we learn from the Golden Buddha temple.
The same idea is beautifully explained in Thirumoolar’s Thirumantiram. A sculptor has carved out a beautiful elephant from a block of wood. When you see it as an elephant, you do not see the underlying reality of the wood. When you will be able to see the substratum, the underlying reality of the wood, with which all the objects of carving are made, you do not see the carved elephant; you see the substratum of the wood. Likewise, the ignorance enveloping our minds obscure the ultimate reality within us, when we are graded by the body-mind-intellect complex. When the revelation comes to us through god’s grace and gurus’ teachings coupled with our devotion to Him, the conditioning disappears. The phenomena abide in the ultimate. We experience the Divinity within us.
Even in the area of management, the story of Golden Buddha has a great relevance. A competent Manager, with a penetrating mind, should be able to see what is the reality hidden in the numerous external information. The external covering only obscures the truth, which you will be able to get through. Once you see the substratum, the ultimate truth is revealed.
Thursday, April 24, 2008
Monday, April 14, 2008
AKKA MAHADEVI
AKKA MAHADEVI
Bhakti movement, which preached that the patch to God is through utter devotion without any distinction of caste, creed or status, produced some great poets and spiritualists. Akka Mahadevi, the Kannada poet devotee was one such personality. She was born in the 12th century in Udutadi village in Sivamoga area. She was initiated into Shiva worship at the age of 10, and became an ardent devotee of Chenna Mallikarjuna, which literally meant “beautiful Lord, white as jasmine”. This description of Lord Shiva became her ‘Ankita’ or ‘Signature’ in her poetry.
When she grew into a beautiful girl, the king of that area chanced to see her and fell in love with her. Soon after, she was married to him against her wishes. Since she had accepted Chena Mallikarjuna as the Lord of her body and soul, she had no time or inclination for the worldly pleasures. The misery of being wife of a mortal found its expression in poetry. In her poems, she even described Shiva as her paramount. Akka Mahadevi was the very first devotee who claimed that illicit love towards God was greater than most lawful wedded life on this earth. In the later centuries, Vaishnava movement of Bengal gave great importance to this concept. The culmination point came when Akka’s husband tried to force himself on her as matter of right as a husband. It is also mentioned that her wrathful husband demanded from her the return of all her jewels and dresses which he gave to her, she returned them to him including the clothes she was wearing. Immediately, she left home and became a wanderer.
This poem is a reflection of her physical and mental conditions all through her life. She discarded her clothes and covered herself only with long tresses. Akka Mahadevi created a revolution, first, by refusing to live a normal married life with a husband and second, roaming around in the streets naked, singing devotional songs in the name of Lord Shiva. Her poems were called ‘Vachanas’.
Her poetry exhibits her love for Chenna Mallikarjuna and harmony with nature and simple living.
She Sang:
For hunger, there is the village rice in the begging bowl,
For thirst, there are tanks and streams and wells
For sleep temple ruins do well
For the company of the soul l have you, Chenna Mallikarjuna
In the latter part of her life, she reached the congregation of the renowned devotees of Lord Shiva or Veera Shaiva Allama and Basavanna. She was tested by Allama, who had to bow down to her unflagging devotion and highly intellectual spiritually. She was then accepted by the Veera Shaivas. She later wandered off to Sri Sailam where she merged with the Lord she loved and worshipped so much. She lived for not more than thirty years.
Akka Mahadevi’s contribution to both the spiritual and cultural facets of society is remarkable. She is the fore-runner of frenzied Bhakti movement. She anticipated the Bhakti movement, that would pervade the whole country a few centuries later, by her concept of complete, unconditional devotion to God, to the extent of accepting him as her husband and life long companion. She also paved the way for an independent, thinking woman by announcing that she would live her life as she chose and not according to the tradition of the man made society. Her poetry is rich in content and form, with its sincerity and simplicity and continues to enchant all types of readers.
Bhakti movement, which preached that the patch to God is through utter devotion without any distinction of caste, creed or status, produced some great poets and spiritualists. Akka Mahadevi, the Kannada poet devotee was one such personality. She was born in the 12th century in Udutadi village in Sivamoga area. She was initiated into Shiva worship at the age of 10, and became an ardent devotee of Chenna Mallikarjuna, which literally meant “beautiful Lord, white as jasmine”. This description of Lord Shiva became her ‘Ankita’ or ‘Signature’ in her poetry.
When she grew into a beautiful girl, the king of that area chanced to see her and fell in love with her. Soon after, she was married to him against her wishes. Since she had accepted Chena Mallikarjuna as the Lord of her body and soul, she had no time or inclination for the worldly pleasures. The misery of being wife of a mortal found its expression in poetry. In her poems, she even described Shiva as her paramount. Akka Mahadevi was the very first devotee who claimed that illicit love towards God was greater than most lawful wedded life on this earth. In the later centuries, Vaishnava movement of Bengal gave great importance to this concept. The culmination point came when Akka’s husband tried to force himself on her as matter of right as a husband. It is also mentioned that her wrathful husband demanded from her the return of all her jewels and dresses which he gave to her, she returned them to him including the clothes she was wearing. Immediately, she left home and became a wanderer.
This poem is a reflection of her physical and mental conditions all through her life. She discarded her clothes and covered herself only with long tresses. Akka Mahadevi created a revolution, first, by refusing to live a normal married life with a husband and second, roaming around in the streets naked, singing devotional songs in the name of Lord Shiva. Her poems were called ‘Vachanas’.
Her poetry exhibits her love for Chenna Mallikarjuna and harmony with nature and simple living.
She Sang:
For hunger, there is the village rice in the begging bowl,
For thirst, there are tanks and streams and wells
For sleep temple ruins do well
For the company of the soul l have you, Chenna Mallikarjuna
In the latter part of her life, she reached the congregation of the renowned devotees of Lord Shiva or Veera Shaiva Allama and Basavanna. She was tested by Allama, who had to bow down to her unflagging devotion and highly intellectual spiritually. She was then accepted by the Veera Shaivas. She later wandered off to Sri Sailam where she merged with the Lord she loved and worshipped so much. She lived for not more than thirty years.
Akka Mahadevi’s contribution to both the spiritual and cultural facets of society is remarkable. She is the fore-runner of frenzied Bhakti movement. She anticipated the Bhakti movement, that would pervade the whole country a few centuries later, by her concept of complete, unconditional devotion to God, to the extent of accepting him as her husband and life long companion. She also paved the way for an independent, thinking woman by announcing that she would live her life as she chose and not according to the tradition of the man made society. Her poetry is rich in content and form, with its sincerity and simplicity and continues to enchant all types of readers.
The Golden Buddha
The Golden Buddha
In the month of May 2007 I was invited to speak at the Mahidol University of Bangkok during the SSEASR Conference. I gave a talk on Yogachara Buddhism there. During this occasion, I had the opportunity to visit various Buddhist temples at Bangkok. They include the magnificent ones like Emerald Buddha, Golden Buddha, Buddha in his Maha nirvana time etc. It is very interesting to note that in the Sanctum Sanctorum of all Buddha temples, while the right side wall is covered with pictures depicting instances in Buddha’s life, the left side has paintings exclusively from Ramayana. For a Thai devotee, Hinduism is as important as Mahayana Buddhism.
During the visit of one of the temple, I learnt this great truth about ignorance obscuring Reality.
One of these famous temples has a Buddha icon nearly 17 feet tall, which is known till the beginning of 20th century as “Terracotta Buddha temple” . The temple was established in the 13th century with its huge icon of Buddha, for several centuries it was worshipped by the devotees as “Terracotta Buddha”. One day the authorities decided to shift the Terracotta Buddha image to a place several kilometers away, probably to do some repairs to the temple. They put the Terracotta Buddha on a truck and were moving it. When they were half way through, a heavy downpour started. The rain was so heavy that the clay image of Buddha started dissolving. They tried to protect the image with tarpaulins and umbrellas, but to no effect. There was a very heavy wind which blew away the tarpaulins and umbrellas. Due to the heavy rain, the Buddha icon in clay was dissolving fast. The devotees were grief-stricken. They were wondering whether it would have been wiser to have left the temple un-repaired rather than allowing the centuries old terracotta Buddha icon to get dissolved in the heavy downpour.
Presto! A wonderful thing was happening. As the clay was dissolving, from within the clay was emerging a golden Buddha idol! as the idol there was of clay. After a short while all the clay, which was covering the idol got completely dissolved. The people were witnessing the presence of a resplendent “Golden Buddha” appearing before them in all its grandeur.
What really happened? It was really a golden Buddha at the time of its installation in the 13th century. After some time Thailand was experiencing foreign invasions. Fearing that the invaders would take away the golden image, which was 5.5 tons of solid gold, the devotees covered the image with clay. Thinking that it was only a Terracotta Buddha, the invaders left it untouched. That generation knowing that it was a golden Buddha inside the clay, worshipped Buddha in that form. As many years passed by, the subsequent generations were not aware of this fact. They truly believed in what they saw externally and worshipped it as a Terracotta Buddha only. Thus their minds were conditioned by externalities. Once the clay dissolved what is truly inside came out with all its effulgence. It is today worshipped as the golden Buddha in Bangkok.
It is happening to all of us everyday, we assume ourselves to be only a body-mind-intellect complex and nothing beyond it. We are conditioned by our awareness of our body, our thinking process and our analysis of the phenomena. These are only externalities within each one of us. It is only a clay that surrounds the wonderful Immanence within us. Within each one of us is the golden Buddha, the great immanent Lord who is also transcendent, he is the great Shiva, who is constantly performing his cosmic dance. In our hearts we not aware of it as our minds are conditioned by what we see, do and think. It is like the Thais seeing only the clay image and concluding it as only terracotta Buddha. As the rain dissolved the clay, the golden icon which is the true-one inside is revealed. Likewise when the spiritual sadhaha and devotion dissolves our mental conditioning, the Lord within ourselves is also revealed. This is the lesson we learn from the Golden Buddha temple.
The same idea is beautifully explained in Thirumoolar’s Thirumantiram. A sculptor has carved out a beautiful elephant from a block of wood. When you see it as an elephant, you do not see the underlying reality of the wood. When you will be able to see the substratum, the underlying reality of the wood, with which all the objects of carving are made, you do not see the carved elephant; you see the substratum of the wood. Likewise, the ignorance enveloping our minds obscure the ultimate reality within us, when we are graded by the body-mind-intellect complex. When the revelation comes to us through god’s grace and gurus’ teachings coupled with our devotion to Him, the conditioning disappears. The phenomena abide in the ultimate. We experience the Divinity within us.
Even in the area of management, the story of Golden Buddha has a great relevance. A competent Manager, with a penetrating mind, should be able to see what is the reality hidden in the numerous external information. The external covering only obscures the truth, which you will be able to get through. Once you see the substratum, the ultimate truth is revealed.
In the month of May 2007 I was invited to speak at the Mahidol University of Bangkok during the SSEASR Conference. I gave a talk on Yogachara Buddhism there. During this occasion, I had the opportunity to visit various Buddhist temples at Bangkok. They include the magnificent ones like Emerald Buddha, Golden Buddha, Buddha in his Maha nirvana time etc. It is very interesting to note that in the Sanctum Sanctorum of all Buddha temples, while the right side wall is covered with pictures depicting instances in Buddha’s life, the left side has paintings exclusively from Ramayana. For a Thai devotee, Hinduism is as important as Mahayana Buddhism.
During the visit of one of the temple, I learnt this great truth about ignorance obscuring Reality.
One of these famous temples has a Buddha icon nearly 17 feet tall, which is known till the beginning of 20th century as “Terracotta Buddha temple” . The temple was established in the 13th century with its huge icon of Buddha, for several centuries it was worshipped by the devotees as “Terracotta Buddha”. One day the authorities decided to shift the Terracotta Buddha image to a place several kilometers away, probably to do some repairs to the temple. They put the Terracotta Buddha on a truck and were moving it. When they were half way through, a heavy downpour started. The rain was so heavy that the clay image of Buddha started dissolving. They tried to protect the image with tarpaulins and umbrellas, but to no effect. There was a very heavy wind which blew away the tarpaulins and umbrellas. Due to the heavy rain, the Buddha icon in clay was dissolving fast. The devotees were grief-stricken. They were wondering whether it would have been wiser to have left the temple un-repaired rather than allowing the centuries old terracotta Buddha icon to get dissolved in the heavy downpour.
Presto! A wonderful thing was happening. As the clay was dissolving, from within the clay was emerging a golden Buddha idol! as the idol there was of clay. After a short while all the clay, which was covering the idol got completely dissolved. The people were witnessing the presence of a resplendent “Golden Buddha” appearing before them in all its grandeur.
What really happened? It was really a golden Buddha at the time of its installation in the 13th century. After some time Thailand was experiencing foreign invasions. Fearing that the invaders would take away the golden image, which was 5.5 tons of solid gold, the devotees covered the image with clay. Thinking that it was only a Terracotta Buddha, the invaders left it untouched. That generation knowing that it was a golden Buddha inside the clay, worshipped Buddha in that form. As many years passed by, the subsequent generations were not aware of this fact. They truly believed in what they saw externally and worshipped it as a Terracotta Buddha only. Thus their minds were conditioned by externalities. Once the clay dissolved what is truly inside came out with all its effulgence. It is today worshipped as the golden Buddha in Bangkok.
It is happening to all of us everyday, we assume ourselves to be only a body-mind-intellect complex and nothing beyond it. We are conditioned by our awareness of our body, our thinking process and our analysis of the phenomena. These are only externalities within each one of us. It is only a clay that surrounds the wonderful Immanence within us. Within each one of us is the golden Buddha, the great immanent Lord who is also transcendent, he is the great Shiva, who is constantly performing his cosmic dance. In our hearts we not aware of it as our minds are conditioned by what we see, do and think. It is like the Thais seeing only the clay image and concluding it as only terracotta Buddha. As the rain dissolved the clay, the golden icon which is the true-one inside is revealed. Likewise when the spiritual sadhaha and devotion dissolves our mental conditioning, the Lord within ourselves is also revealed. This is the lesson we learn from the Golden Buddha temple.
The same idea is beautifully explained in Thirumoolar’s Thirumantiram. A sculptor has carved out a beautiful elephant from a block of wood. When you see it as an elephant, you do not see the underlying reality of the wood. When you will be able to see the substratum, the underlying reality of the wood, with which all the objects of carving are made, you do not see the carved elephant; you see the substratum of the wood. Likewise, the ignorance enveloping our minds obscure the ultimate reality within us, when we are graded by the body-mind-intellect complex. When the revelation comes to us through god’s grace and gurus’ teachings coupled with our devotion to Him, the conditioning disappears. The phenomena abide in the ultimate. We experience the Divinity within us.
Even in the area of management, the story of Golden Buddha has a great relevance. A competent Manager, with a penetrating mind, should be able to see what is the reality hidden in the numerous external information. The external covering only obscures the truth, which you will be able to get through. Once you see the substratum, the ultimate truth is revealed.
Lost land of Lemuria
The concept of lost land of Lemuria hither to a talking point of in the west finds a new set of things in the Tamil origin of colonial India in the beginning of the 20th century. This was direct result of a new consciousness of the ethane and linguistic identity emerged in Tamil speaking regions of South India. By the Tamil enthuse Lemuria came to be recast as the birth place of the Tamil civilization. It cam to be identified as Kumari kandam, the ancestral home land of Tamil lost to the ravaging ocean in the distant past, due to what is called as “Kadal Koal” in tamil. In fact, Tamil Nadu Government, during January 1981 at the Fifth Intrnal Conference of Tamil studies held in Madurai screened a documentary named “Kumari Kandam” both in Tamil and English. The documentary was produced with the financial support of the Tamil Nadu Government traced the roots of Tamil, its literature and culture, to the very beginning of time in Lemuria otherwise known as Kumari Kandam in Tamil. In this documentary the Paleo history of the world is anchored around tamil land and language. Thus Sclater’s lost land of Lemuria was re-established in the timeless collective consciousness as a catastrophic loss of prelapasarian tamil past. Even earlier to this in 1879 Geological Survey of India brought out in the manual of GRGl, a discussion on the Mesozoic land bridge between Southern India and Africa. Dr.D.N. Wadia, a famed Professor of Geology, mentioned in 1990 “The evidence from which the above conclusion regarding an Indo-African land connection is drawn, is so weight and so many sided that the differences of opinion that exist among geologist appertain the main conclusion being accepted as one of the settled facts in the geography of this part of the world. [Wadia D.N. 1919, Geology of India for students, London: Macmillan – 1939, Geology of India, 2nd ed. London: Macmillan.
E.M. Forster in his famed novel ” A Passage to India “ (1984) begins his stunning stanza lie “The Ganges, though flowing from the foot of Vishnu through, Siva’s hair, is not an ancient stream. Geology, looking further than religion, knows of a time when neither the river nor the Himalayas that nourished it existed, and an ocean flowed over the holy places of Hindustan. The mountains rose, their debris silted up the ocean , the gods took their seats on them and contrived the river, and the India we call immemorial came into being. But India is really far older than anything in the world”.
[Ref: E.M.Forster’s “A passage to India” 1984, pp 135-136, Harcourt Brace, New York.]
Thus the fabled Kumari Kandam, which was based on Tamil Literary tradition so far can receive immediate credibility through the western studies. The foundation for this claim was laid by Charles D. Maclean Book “The Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency” published in 1835” Mr. Maclean is an Officer of Indian Civil Services. In the ethnology chapter of the Manual Maclean brought the findings of Ernest Haeckel about Lemuria as a primeval home of man. Maclean also draws further conclusion from the German Biologist’s theory of the origin of various traces of mankind on the submerged Lemuria continent and reiterated that it was the primeval home of the ancestors of India and Ceylon. [Ref: Maclean Charles. D. ‘s “The Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency”, Vol.I, Asian Educational Publication (pp-33-43), He suggested that Southern India was once the passage ground by which the ancient progenitors of northern and Mediterranean races proceeded to the parts of the globe which they now inhabit from Lemuria. [Ref: ibid 111].
However, there is a distinct difference in perception of the Lemuria inhabitants on the point of view of Western Scholars and the Tamil enthuse. According to the Western Scholars the primitive inhabitants of Lemuria are barely human and do not represent the trace of civilization. However, the Tamil scholars hold Lemuria or Kumari Kantam as the birth place of Tamil Language and cradle of Tamil Civilisation. The antiquity of Tamil language got a boos with the publication of Canbell’s Book “The competitive grammar of Dravidian Langauge”. J. Nellai swami Pillai wrote in the journal “The Light of Truth” or “Siddantha Deepika” that if you can believe in the tradition of there having been a vast continent south of Cape Comorin, all humanity and civilization flowed east and west and north, then there can be nothing strange in our regarding the Tamilans as the remnants of a pre-diluvian race. Even the existing works in Tamil sepak of three separate floods which completely swamped the extreme southern shores and carried off with them all its literary treasures of ages. (Ref: Nella swami pillai. J.’s “Ancient Tamil Civilisation in the light of truth” or Siddhanta Deepika. No. 5 –pp 109-113].
Nella Swami Pillai gives a cautious conclusion that his theory stands on no serious historical or scientific evidence. The same was enthusiastically taken up fully by a well-known Tamil scholar Marimalai Adigal.
Though the name Lemuria came into the Tamil world only in 1903, it started gaining significance among the tamil populous. Shri V.G.Suryanarayana Sastri started using the name Kumarinadu in his book “Tamilmoliyin varalaru. Thiru T.V.Kalyanasundaram the famous Congress Nationlist, and a noted Tamil scholar wrote emphatically that the Lemuria of “Western Scholars” like Ernst Haeckel and Scott Elliot was none other than the Kumarinadu of Tamil literature” . {Ref: Thiru T.V.Kalyanasundaram’s “Indiyavum viduthalaiyum” Charu Printing Press, Madras –Pp 106.].
The very name Kumari is suggestive of the prestine chastity and ever lasting youth of the tamil land. Later the legends linked the Devi Temple at Kanyakumari to Kumari Kantam or Kumar Nadu. The Kumari Kanta as mentioned in the old tamil classics, has no reference to the Mesozoic continent of the Indian ocean. There is no reference to the old boundaries of Asiatic table lands. The tamil literature speaks of them as the original inhabitants of the great territory opened by two seas on the East and West, by Venkata hills and submerged rivers Pakruli and Kumari on the South. )(Ref: Sesha Iyengar K.G. Chera King of the Sangam Period, 1937-pp 658] Scholars like Somasundara Bharathi and also invented hackers concept of Lemuria being a cradle of mankind mean that the tamil place is the birth of human beings and the tamils were the first humans.
The features of Kumari Kantam were referred by Adiyarku Nallar, the commenter of Silapathikaram. Kumari Kantam was having a breadth of 700 kavatam south of Cape Kumari containing 49 principalities, 2 rivers called Pakurli and Kumari flowed there and it also had a bill called Kumari Koodu. The major cities in Kumari Kantam were Thenmadurai and Kapatipuram. This was also referred to in Tholkappia Orrai of Ilam Pooranar Nachinarkku Iniyan Payrasiriyar.
The Tamil Scholar V.G. Suryanaryana Sastri, Abrham Pandithar, lament about the loss of works such as Mudunarai, Mudukurugu, etc, which had been swalloed by the ocean. These are derived from the fact that several poems in the Sangam anthology of later age refer to oceanic threat and consequent loss of lands and lives.
The Tamil Scholar K.Anna poorni delineates the extent of Kumari Kantan as she concludes as Tamilagham “ Today, the Tamilnadu that we inhabit consists of 12 districts within its limits. A few centuries aga. Ceranatu and a part of the Telugu land were part of Tamilnadu. Some thousands of years ago, the northern limit of Tamilnadu extended to the Vindhya mountain and the southern limit extened 700 Kavatam to the south of Cape Kumari which included regions such as Panainatu, mountains such as Kumarik Kotu and Mani Malia, cities such as Muttur and Kapatapuram and rivers such as Pahruli. All these were seized by the ocean, so say scholar. That today’s Indian Ocean was once upon a time a vast landmass and that that is where the man first appears has been stated by several scholars such as Ernst Haeckel and Scott Elliot in their books History of Creation and Lost Lemuria. The landmass called Lemuria is what Tamilians call Kumarinadu. That which is remaining after this ancient landmass was seized by the ocean is the Tamil Mother land in which we reside today with pride.
E.M. Forster in his famed novel ” A Passage to India “ (1984) begins his stunning stanza lie “The Ganges, though flowing from the foot of Vishnu through, Siva’s hair, is not an ancient stream. Geology, looking further than religion, knows of a time when neither the river nor the Himalayas that nourished it existed, and an ocean flowed over the holy places of Hindustan. The mountains rose, their debris silted up the ocean , the gods took their seats on them and contrived the river, and the India we call immemorial came into being. But India is really far older than anything in the world”.
[Ref: E.M.Forster’s “A passage to India” 1984, pp 135-136, Harcourt Brace, New York.]
Thus the fabled Kumari Kandam, which was based on Tamil Literary tradition so far can receive immediate credibility through the western studies. The foundation for this claim was laid by Charles D. Maclean Book “The Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency” published in 1835” Mr. Maclean is an Officer of Indian Civil Services. In the ethnology chapter of the Manual Maclean brought the findings of Ernest Haeckel about Lemuria as a primeval home of man. Maclean also draws further conclusion from the German Biologist’s theory of the origin of various traces of mankind on the submerged Lemuria continent and reiterated that it was the primeval home of the ancestors of India and Ceylon. [Ref: Maclean Charles. D. ‘s “The Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency”, Vol.I, Asian Educational Publication (pp-33-43), He suggested that Southern India was once the passage ground by which the ancient progenitors of northern and Mediterranean races proceeded to the parts of the globe which they now inhabit from Lemuria. [Ref: ibid 111].
However, there is a distinct difference in perception of the Lemuria inhabitants on the point of view of Western Scholars and the Tamil enthuse. According to the Western Scholars the primitive inhabitants of Lemuria are barely human and do not represent the trace of civilization. However, the Tamil scholars hold Lemuria or Kumari Kantam as the birth place of Tamil Language and cradle of Tamil Civilisation. The antiquity of Tamil language got a boos with the publication of Canbell’s Book “The competitive grammar of Dravidian Langauge”. J. Nellai swami Pillai wrote in the journal “The Light of Truth” or “Siddantha Deepika” that if you can believe in the tradition of there having been a vast continent south of Cape Comorin, all humanity and civilization flowed east and west and north, then there can be nothing strange in our regarding the Tamilans as the remnants of a pre-diluvian race. Even the existing works in Tamil sepak of three separate floods which completely swamped the extreme southern shores and carried off with them all its literary treasures of ages. (Ref: Nella swami pillai. J.’s “Ancient Tamil Civilisation in the light of truth” or Siddhanta Deepika. No. 5 –pp 109-113].
Nella Swami Pillai gives a cautious conclusion that his theory stands on no serious historical or scientific evidence. The same was enthusiastically taken up fully by a well-known Tamil scholar Marimalai Adigal.
Though the name Lemuria came into the Tamil world only in 1903, it started gaining significance among the tamil populous. Shri V.G.Suryanarayana Sastri started using the name Kumarinadu in his book “Tamilmoliyin varalaru. Thiru T.V.Kalyanasundaram the famous Congress Nationlist, and a noted Tamil scholar wrote emphatically that the Lemuria of “Western Scholars” like Ernst Haeckel and Scott Elliot was none other than the Kumarinadu of Tamil literature” . {Ref: Thiru T.V.Kalyanasundaram’s “Indiyavum viduthalaiyum” Charu Printing Press, Madras –Pp 106.].
The very name Kumari is suggestive of the prestine chastity and ever lasting youth of the tamil land. Later the legends linked the Devi Temple at Kanyakumari to Kumari Kantam or Kumar Nadu. The Kumari Kanta as mentioned in the old tamil classics, has no reference to the Mesozoic continent of the Indian ocean. There is no reference to the old boundaries of Asiatic table lands. The tamil literature speaks of them as the original inhabitants of the great territory opened by two seas on the East and West, by Venkata hills and submerged rivers Pakruli and Kumari on the South. )(Ref: Sesha Iyengar K.G. Chera King of the Sangam Period, 1937-pp 658] Scholars like Somasundara Bharathi and also invented hackers concept of Lemuria being a cradle of mankind mean that the tamil place is the birth of human beings and the tamils were the first humans.
The features of Kumari Kantam were referred by Adiyarku Nallar, the commenter of Silapathikaram. Kumari Kantam was having a breadth of 700 kavatam south of Cape Kumari containing 49 principalities, 2 rivers called Pakurli and Kumari flowed there and it also had a bill called Kumari Koodu. The major cities in Kumari Kantam were Thenmadurai and Kapatipuram. This was also referred to in Tholkappia Orrai of Ilam Pooranar Nachinarkku Iniyan Payrasiriyar.
The Tamil Scholar V.G. Suryanaryana Sastri, Abrham Pandithar, lament about the loss of works such as Mudunarai, Mudukurugu, etc, which had been swalloed by the ocean. These are derived from the fact that several poems in the Sangam anthology of later age refer to oceanic threat and consequent loss of lands and lives.
The Tamil Scholar K.Anna poorni delineates the extent of Kumari Kantan as she concludes as Tamilagham “ Today, the Tamilnadu that we inhabit consists of 12 districts within its limits. A few centuries aga. Ceranatu and a part of the Telugu land were part of Tamilnadu. Some thousands of years ago, the northern limit of Tamilnadu extended to the Vindhya mountain and the southern limit extened 700 Kavatam to the south of Cape Kumari which included regions such as Panainatu, mountains such as Kumarik Kotu and Mani Malia, cities such as Muttur and Kapatapuram and rivers such as Pahruli. All these were seized by the ocean, so say scholar. That today’s Indian Ocean was once upon a time a vast landmass and that that is where the man first appears has been stated by several scholars such as Ernst Haeckel and Scott Elliot in their books History of Creation and Lost Lemuria. The landmass called Lemuria is what Tamilians call Kumarinadu. That which is remaining after this ancient landmass was seized by the ocean is the Tamil Mother land in which we reside today with pride.
THE CONCEPT OF RELICISM IN INDIAN POETICS.
THE CONCEPT OF RELICISM IN INDIAN POETICS.
--- S. RAM MOHAN
Creative writers on all languages employ a number of devices to embellish their poetry and to convey subtle concepts and sublime feeling to the readers. Symbolism is a device that has been used to great advantage in all great creative works. It is of the most fundamental importance in Tamil Sangam poetry. While its importance is admittedly overwhelming, the present writer has noticed a tendency casually to club other things with symbolism. Thus good instances of a subtle concept that can be termed Relicism too get associated with those of symbolism though it can be shown that these two are really different entities. We shall first explain briefly the nature of symbolism with some examples and then examine Relicism deeply in order that we can grasp the inner import of this device.
A poet needs to refer to Entity A but rightly concludes that a direct reference to it will not be pleasing; he picks up Entity B which has some relationship with Entity A and by referring adroitly to the former in his work he makes the reader connect it mentally with Entity A which he relishes. As Entity B acts as a symbol for Entity A, the process gets the appellation symbolism. The poet will have to guard in utlising this device, against certain possibilities. One is that Entity B should not, in symbolising A, bring up any emotions associated with the relationship that run counter to the one the poet is attempting to arouse; for this will cause inner conflict and eddying of emotions which take away from the delight that might otherwise be produced. A second point, of course, is that the association of A with B should be fairly widely known as otherwise many readers may fail to make the connection and obtain the benefit of symbolism.
There are many kinds of symbolism. Many of them are discussed in seminal works like Sri A.V.Subramanian's Tamil book on it entitled "Symbolism in Sangam poetry", a pioneering work on the subject. One that is most widely known and is of fundamental importance in Sangam love literature is that in which a distinct part of the landscape is referred to (being Entity B) so that a stage of love which it represents may strike the mind of the reader (being Entity A). The hills with their slopes densely afforested can prove excellent cover for lovers to meet in secrecy and hence are used to symbolise the earliest stage of love, i.e., meetings of lovers in total secrecy.
Let us study a poem to illustrate how symbolism is used effectively by great poets.
Poem No.95 (Ref: 1) of Kuruntokai was composed by Kapilar, one of the greatest Sangam Poets. This represents the early stage of love between a mountain Chieftain and a girl of the hunter-farmer tribe; the friend of the Chief has noticed how his friend who was widely admired earlier for his reckless courage was becoming distinctly unsure of himself, even timid and apprehensive and queried him on this. The poem constitutes the hero's reply to his friend. The hero admits he was brave in the past but since meeting the girl, her cool, water-like personality has quite quenched the raging fires in him. This secret love between them has put many fears and apprehension in the hero's heart, making him timid. His new timidity is a measure of his great love for the girl, as this love has made him fear many obstacles, even positive threats from parents and others.
The poem starts with brief references to the mountain, its slopes, the waterfall and the may blooming flowers; these serve to link up previous aesthetic references to mountain slopes and the love drama described in earlier poems read and enjoyed by the reader; when the essential message of the poem is read, it enters a mind that is already filled with memories of secret love meetings reported in the earlier poems and is hence accorded a warm reception and its love sentiment gets much augmented and reinforced. If Entities A and B are associated in the minds of a very large number of readers, the symbolism making use of them is bound to succeed.
1. We now turn to the yet unrecognised category of Relicism. If one character recognises some material as something used by another in love with it or connected by some strong emotional relationship like mother and child and that material stirs up deep emotional springs in the first, we have a case of Relicism. For the emotional springs to be really opened up, the two characters should be separated and in anguish. In the case of Relicism, the relationship between the material and the other need not be widely known, as in the case of Symbolism. It is enough if the character observing it tells other characters and the reader about its emotional significance for oneself. While Relicism deals with one-to-one relationship, symbolism deals with one-to-many or two-to-many relationship.
2. Cases of Relicism will be found to be fewer than those of Symbolism. However, the emotional significance of a relic is far greater and deeper than that of an object symbolised. It is thus a potent weapon in the hands of an adroit poet who can get all the emotional reaction he needs for his poem naturally from Relicism without running the risk of being dubbed over-sentimental. Let us study some examples to get a clearer idea of this device.
3. Another girl, very much love with a young man who has left the village to acquire wealth is not as lucky as this. She very much misses him, spending the time going over in her mind all those meetings between them, even all those periods of anxious waiting for the loved one to arrive. The meetings had to be clandestine as the girl's parents should not come to know of them. They were fixed to take place at dead of night near the tree one ride of the girl's house. The boy would have arrived earlier, in his anxiety not to be late. The girl had to be careful in coming out of the house without waking up her mother or the others in the house and naturally was a little late to arrive at the rendezvous. The boy therefore had had to spend a long time very night near the tree.
4. The girl, in poem 266 (Ref: 2) of Kuruntokai tells her girl companion, "He has not bothered to send me a message all these long months. But this tree was his only companion for long periods on many nights during that period when we were meeting secretly. Could he not have sent a message through a bird to the tree to which he had got attached-so many birds are coming to perch on the tree!"
5. Here the tree growing on the side of the house serves as a relic to the girl reminding her of the ardour of her lover who used to walk through the jungle where tigers and bears lurk every night so as to be with her. Even though the separation was very painful she could alleviate the pain through the recollections of those ecstatic moments she had spent with him - recollections spurred by the tree standing as a relic of those happy nights.
6. Perhaps the best example of Relicism is presented in verse 193 of the Tamil love anthology Kuruntokai. A girl, very much in love with a boy was expected to look emaciated as her lover had left the village to earn wealth and had not returned to her yet. But her girl companion finds her looking healthy and in good spirits, and so she asks her in considerable surprise how she was able to main her health and spirits during this long period of separation. The poem constitutes the reply of the girl.
She says, " In the night before he left he came to me and spent some time with me in the moon light. He had come adorned with mullai buds and we had a great time together. He left the Village, it is true and it is quite some time but my shoulders still give off that mullai smell and feel that he is present near her all the time. The aroma abides in the heart and it is this relic that has sustained her all through these dreary months of separation. Relicism is by its nature subtle; but in this example there is no physical relic, it is the ardently loving mind that has kept the relic of the mullai aroma all through; this reinforces the natural subtlety of the device and generates greater pleasure to the reader, for that reason.
7. Perhaps the best example of Relicism is presented in verse 193 (Ref: 3) of the Tamil love anthology Kuruntokai. A girl, very much in love with a boy was expected to look emaciated as her lover had left the village to earn wealth and had not returned to her yet. But her girl companion finds her looking healthy and in good spirits, and so she asks her in considerable surprise how she was able to main her health and spirits during this long period of separation. The poem constitutes the reply of the girl.
8. Relics turn up not merely in the lives of lovers but wherever there is true and deep emotion. Sangam poets have sung a number of poems on the emotional state of the members of the family of the girl who has eloped with her young lover. In Natrinai 143 (Ref 3A) the mother, unable to bear the separation from the daughter points to the bevy of small girls who bevy of small girls who used to play with her in the rand-spread front portion of the house and to the fence of orai trees around it, emphasising how they all are unhappy reminders, had relics of happier days when the girl was with them. Apart from these, the parrot petted so avidly by the girl, cries out in anguish, "O, my mother! wake up from your slumber!" and is not to be comforted.
The living articulate relic, the parrot is able to bring out the sorrow of the family more sharply then the now empty rand-spread playing field or the silent tress. It cries not in its agony and being a parrot, it is able to mouth it in discernible words. More importantly, the parrot is in the position of a child whom its foster-mother, the eloping girl is certain to miss; she would thus be in the same position as her mother who, she should have realised, would suffer torments as a result of the separation. "How I miss my pet the darling parrot! My mother back home will obviously be missing me badly! " would be the girl; train of emotion. Thus the relic here clearly provides a parallel of a suffering mother and is thus eloquently able to bring the emotional state of the sorrowing family on the morning after the elopement.
In Akananooru 165, (Ref: 4) the mother of the girl who has left the house the previous night with her lover finds the doll lying in the randy courtyard, neglected- the doll that was dear to her daughter. This relic brings to her mind the many incidents where her daughter had been seen tending to it lovingly as if it were her own daughter. The mother embraces the doll lamenting; she quite realizes that her daughter must have felt had to leave the doll behind; she must be missing her the same way as she herself, the mother was missing her daughter.
In the literature of later days, too, this concept of Relicism has been fully exploited by poets to bring out the sorrow caused by separation. Goda, known better as Andal in Tamil imagines herself to be a cowherd lass in deep love with Lord Krishna. But Krishna has other engagements and does not come to her to fulfil her passion. So, in desperation she cries out to her kinsmen to take her to various places frequented by Krishna earlier and leave her there as the very places would serve her as relics reminding her intensely of her lover. Among the places selected by her are the bank of the pond where the dreaded serpent Kaliyan was worsted by the Lord dancing on its hoods, the place in the woods, where, on the instructions of Krishna, his playmates stood waiting for the food to be brought by the Brahmin women every day and finally the courtyard of Nandagopan's house. These places have been selected for their special and close association with the lover who must have left his stamp of individuality on them, thus enhancing their relic value. Nammalvar beautifully brings out the concept of relicism in Thiruvaimozhi verse No.2447 (Ref: 5) . Here the mother torments the mental state of her daughter. The daughter is so much in love with the Lord that she finds the relic of Him in all the objects surrounding her, in every creation of the Universe. She puts her hand in the dust of the ground and says “this is the mud on the holy feet of Vamana had walked”. Thus the very insignificant mud itself serves as the relic which triggers the image of her beloved in her mind. She looks at the sky and essays that this is the direction where his abode of Vaikuntam exists. The very blue colour of the ocean reminds her of Him. The same idea is also expressed in the Upanishad where the beautiful expression of earth being shampooed with the holy dust of his feet is mentioned. (Ref 6)
Relicism is not an idea confined to Tamil literature. There are many places where poets have made adroit use of this to enhance the emotional appeal of passages. Valmiki, the first of poets has made use of it in the Kishkindha kanda, 6th sarga (Ref 7) where he shows the monkeys bringing the jewels of Sita had tied up in an upper cloth, and thrown down from Ravana's chariot in which she was being carried away. These jewels with their intense physical association with Sita possessed great relic value for Rama whose love for her was unique, overwhelming. He is so moved by the light of the jewels, he is unable to identify them and so has the job done by Lakshmana. And, on his confirming that at least the leg ornaments were definitely hers, Rama goes into a trauma of lamentation, swearing terrible vengeance against the king of the rakshasas who took her away from him.
There are several more such instances in Valmiki Ramayanam. Let us savour one more instance of relicism from the Adi Kavya. Here, Sri Rama after the death of Sita and one the onset of spring season remarks on the happy state of all animals. Rama remarks that all animals are playing with their mates whom no demon had taken away. There is a trace of jealousy evident here. This verse is about a peacock.
In the verses 68-70, of the same sarga describe Rama's great anguish at the return of spring season by which nature reminds him of the earlier (previous) spring seas when he and Sita were so happy together. So here, the spring season is the relic which reminds him of the happiness with Sita during the previous spring season. This is a very subtle relic again more or like the Tamil Verse we have seen " ".
This is a clear statement of the spring as a memory relic comparing the unpahh7 present with the happy part, the other conditions remaining unchanged.
In the famous Kaya Svapnavasavvadattam there is a very beautiful reference to the relic.
King believes Vasavadatta to be dead. His men discover her favourite Siva Ghoshasvata in the forests much encrusted with birds emissions and bring it to him. He deplores its cruel fate; how having enjoyed an intimate association with the queen is now discovered neglected, lying in the forest. He likes it and it bring back powerful memories of the queeen playing on it earlier. At the same time he recalls enjoying it for the close association it had had with her lying on her lap and touching her bosom.
Similarly Periazhvar Thirumozhi verses 325 and 326 (Ref 7A) portray Relicism when they describe the occasion when Hanuman hands out the signet ring of Rama to Sita in Asoka Vana. The signet ring, which is the relic here, immediately sends Sita to raptures.
Similar relic-effect is also described by Kamban in verses 63,64 & 65 of Urukkattu Patalam (Ref 8) . Earlier in Kishkintha Kandam, the relic of Sita’s jewels, dropped by her during her airborne abduction by Ravana trigger a powerful emotional reaction in Rama. Kamban say that the very signet of these relics made the entire person of Rama melt away, as described in verses 5 & 6 of Kalan Kaan Patalam (Ref 9).
We have seen that the Relicism is not an idea confined to Tamil literature. There are many places where poets have made adroit use of this to enhance the emotional appeal of passages. Valmiki, the first of poets has made use of it in the Kishkindha kanda, 6th sarga where he shows the monkeys bringing the jewels of Sita had tied up in an upper cloth, and thrown down from Ravana's chariot in which she was being carried away. These jewels with their intense physical association with Sita possessed great relic value for Rama whose love for her was unique, overwhelming. He is so moved by the light of the jewels, he is unable to identify them and so has the job done by Lakshmana. And, on his confirming that at least the leg ornaments were defsinitely hers, Rama goes into a trauma of lamentation, swearing terrible vengeance against the king of the rakshasas who took her away from him.
Kalidasa in his celebrated play Sakuntalam makes adroit use of relicism, as he only can do it, in the III Act of the play. King Dushyanta had been in the company of Sakuntala for some time when she is called away by her foster-mother Gautami. The King misses her very much and seeking some substitute satisfaction, he happens to notice the flower-bower where she had been spending much of the time, waiting to meet him. He sees the flowery bed crushed by her lying on it; the letter she was writing to him on a lotus leaf with her nail as the pen was lying on the floor, faded; he could see the bangle-like ornament she had made of lotus stems and worn by her for some time now fallen on the floor. His eager eyes drank in these relics preventing him from leaving the bower, though now empty, bereft of her.
The fact that the king was unable to leave the bower though Sakuntala had left it earlier is a clear indication of the power of relicism, as he was able to derive some satisfaction contemplating the objects used by her, especially the love-letter expressing her emotional state, remaining undelivered.
In Sanskrit dramaturgy this situation is broadly termed bindu which helps to keep up the love intact when there is a threat to it - which is a very general description of relicism as we have discussed here. The definition given in the Dasarupaka is as follows:
It may be seen that it makes bindu a major category in which not only relicism but many other an readily fit in with space for more. Relicism itself has not been identified as a device and described with examples in the works on aesthetics in Sanskrit or Tamil in the past.
In conclusion we may analyse the main features of relicism which are characteristic of the device: in this we may refer to the creator of the relic as A and the person utilising its relic value as B:-
a) An effective relic should have powerful personal emotional association with A for it to affect B and be valued by B as a relic.
b) Relic value is heightened if, in addition to the emotional association which the relic has with A, it has some association with B too. Thus the tree under which the hero stood awaiting his girl and which therefore is emotionally associated with him is clearly important to the girl as it was their rendezvous.
c) The value of a relic arises on account of its unique association with A and of the fact that only B recognises this. Its relic value is reduced, may be wholly lost, if it is used, loved or respected by a number of persons besides A. Here, it can be seen that relicism is diametrically opposed to symbolism where the symbol can be of value only if it is recognizable by many.
d) The relic itself need not be intrinsically valuable; it may be of no value to other; its value arises only because of its unique emotional association with A.
e) Contrary to the common standards of valuation, the relic value of an object is much heightened if it reveals neglect or Lack of attention and care bestowed on it by other after A leaves it, if it is faded and not likely to survive, as in the case of the plants nurtured by the girl prior to elopement, if it is totally useless and fit to be thrown away as in the case of the lotus stalk ornaments worn by Sakuntala. An extreme case is that of the physically non-existent mullai smell which lives on in the girl's heart months after the lover leaves; the relic here is a physical non-entity; but despite that or perhaps because of that, it possesses a high relic value for the girl.
f) An elementary condition for an object to possess relic value is that its user A is away and is not using it now. Its relic value is heightened if the chances of reunion between A and B are not high or do not appear high in B's estimation.
g) Another basic condition for an object to come to possess relic value is that it should be left behind by A and B is able to come by it. An object does not get the relic status, unless it is left behind by the user; and it does not come to possess value unless B finds it.
h) And, finally a relic comes to possess value only if there is deep emotional attachment between A and B, as otherwise in most cases it has not intrinsic value and may be regarded as rubbish fit to be thrown out.
i) An effective relic should have powerful personal emotional association with A for it to affect B and be valued by B as a relic.
j) Relic value is heightened if, in addition to the emotional association which the relic has with A, it has some association with B too. Thus the tree under which the hero stood awaiting his girl and which therefore is emotionally associated with him is clearly important to the girl as it was their rendezvous.
k) The value of a relic arises on account of its unique association with A and of the fact that only B recognises this. Its relic value is reduced, may be wholly lost, if it is used, loved or respected by a number of persons besides A. Here, it can be seen that relicism is diametrically opposed to symbolism where the symbol can be of value only if it is recognizable by many.
l) The relic itself need not be intrinsically valuable; it may be of no value to other; its value arises only because of its unique emotional association with A.
m) Contrary to the common standards of valuation, the relic value of an object is much heightened if it reveals neglect or Lack of attention and care bestowed on it by other after A leaves it, if it is faded and not likely to survive, as in the case of the plants nurtured by the girl prior to elopement, if it is totally useless and fit to be thrown away as in the case of the lotus stalk ornaments worn by Sakuntala. An extreme case is that of the physically non-existent mullai smell which lives on in the girl's heart months after the lover leaves; the relic here is a physical non-entity; but despite that or perhaps because of that, it possesses a high relic value for the girl.
n) An elementary condition for an object to possess relic value is that its user A is away and is not using it now. Its relic value is heightened if the chances of reunion between A and B are not high or do not appear high in B's estimation.
o) Another basic condition for an object to come to possess relic value is that it should be left behind by A and B is able to come by it. An object does not get the relic status, unless it is left behind by the user; and it does not come to possess value unless B finds it.
p) And, finally a relic comes to possess value only if there is deep emotional attachment between A and B, as otherwise in most cases it has not intrinsic value and may be regarded as rubbish fit to be thrown out.
King believes Vasavadatta to be dead. His men discover her favourite Siva Ghoshasvata in the forests much encrusted with birds emissions and bring it to him. He deplores its cruel fate; how having enjoyed an intimate association with the queen is now discovered neglected, lying in the forest. He likes it and it bring back powerful memories of the queen playing on it earlier. At the same time he recalls enjoying it for the close association it had had with her lying on her lap and touching her bosom.
--- S. RAM MOHAN
Creative writers on all languages employ a number of devices to embellish their poetry and to convey subtle concepts and sublime feeling to the readers. Symbolism is a device that has been used to great advantage in all great creative works. It is of the most fundamental importance in Tamil Sangam poetry. While its importance is admittedly overwhelming, the present writer has noticed a tendency casually to club other things with symbolism. Thus good instances of a subtle concept that can be termed Relicism too get associated with those of symbolism though it can be shown that these two are really different entities. We shall first explain briefly the nature of symbolism with some examples and then examine Relicism deeply in order that we can grasp the inner import of this device.
A poet needs to refer to Entity A but rightly concludes that a direct reference to it will not be pleasing; he picks up Entity B which has some relationship with Entity A and by referring adroitly to the former in his work he makes the reader connect it mentally with Entity A which he relishes. As Entity B acts as a symbol for Entity A, the process gets the appellation symbolism. The poet will have to guard in utlising this device, against certain possibilities. One is that Entity B should not, in symbolising A, bring up any emotions associated with the relationship that run counter to the one the poet is attempting to arouse; for this will cause inner conflict and eddying of emotions which take away from the delight that might otherwise be produced. A second point, of course, is that the association of A with B should be fairly widely known as otherwise many readers may fail to make the connection and obtain the benefit of symbolism.
There are many kinds of symbolism. Many of them are discussed in seminal works like Sri A.V.Subramanian's Tamil book on it entitled "Symbolism in Sangam poetry", a pioneering work on the subject. One that is most widely known and is of fundamental importance in Sangam love literature is that in which a distinct part of the landscape is referred to (being Entity B) so that a stage of love which it represents may strike the mind of the reader (being Entity A). The hills with their slopes densely afforested can prove excellent cover for lovers to meet in secrecy and hence are used to symbolise the earliest stage of love, i.e., meetings of lovers in total secrecy.
Let us study a poem to illustrate how symbolism is used effectively by great poets.
Poem No.95 (Ref: 1) of Kuruntokai was composed by Kapilar, one of the greatest Sangam Poets. This represents the early stage of love between a mountain Chieftain and a girl of the hunter-farmer tribe; the friend of the Chief has noticed how his friend who was widely admired earlier for his reckless courage was becoming distinctly unsure of himself, even timid and apprehensive and queried him on this. The poem constitutes the hero's reply to his friend. The hero admits he was brave in the past but since meeting the girl, her cool, water-like personality has quite quenched the raging fires in him. This secret love between them has put many fears and apprehension in the hero's heart, making him timid. His new timidity is a measure of his great love for the girl, as this love has made him fear many obstacles, even positive threats from parents and others.
The poem starts with brief references to the mountain, its slopes, the waterfall and the may blooming flowers; these serve to link up previous aesthetic references to mountain slopes and the love drama described in earlier poems read and enjoyed by the reader; when the essential message of the poem is read, it enters a mind that is already filled with memories of secret love meetings reported in the earlier poems and is hence accorded a warm reception and its love sentiment gets much augmented and reinforced. If Entities A and B are associated in the minds of a very large number of readers, the symbolism making use of them is bound to succeed.
1. We now turn to the yet unrecognised category of Relicism. If one character recognises some material as something used by another in love with it or connected by some strong emotional relationship like mother and child and that material stirs up deep emotional springs in the first, we have a case of Relicism. For the emotional springs to be really opened up, the two characters should be separated and in anguish. In the case of Relicism, the relationship between the material and the other need not be widely known, as in the case of Symbolism. It is enough if the character observing it tells other characters and the reader about its emotional significance for oneself. While Relicism deals with one-to-one relationship, symbolism deals with one-to-many or two-to-many relationship.
2. Cases of Relicism will be found to be fewer than those of Symbolism. However, the emotional significance of a relic is far greater and deeper than that of an object symbolised. It is thus a potent weapon in the hands of an adroit poet who can get all the emotional reaction he needs for his poem naturally from Relicism without running the risk of being dubbed over-sentimental. Let us study some examples to get a clearer idea of this device.
3. Another girl, very much love with a young man who has left the village to acquire wealth is not as lucky as this. She very much misses him, spending the time going over in her mind all those meetings between them, even all those periods of anxious waiting for the loved one to arrive. The meetings had to be clandestine as the girl's parents should not come to know of them. They were fixed to take place at dead of night near the tree one ride of the girl's house. The boy would have arrived earlier, in his anxiety not to be late. The girl had to be careful in coming out of the house without waking up her mother or the others in the house and naturally was a little late to arrive at the rendezvous. The boy therefore had had to spend a long time very night near the tree.
4. The girl, in poem 266 (Ref: 2) of Kuruntokai tells her girl companion, "He has not bothered to send me a message all these long months. But this tree was his only companion for long periods on many nights during that period when we were meeting secretly. Could he not have sent a message through a bird to the tree to which he had got attached-so many birds are coming to perch on the tree!"
5. Here the tree growing on the side of the house serves as a relic to the girl reminding her of the ardour of her lover who used to walk through the jungle where tigers and bears lurk every night so as to be with her. Even though the separation was very painful she could alleviate the pain through the recollections of those ecstatic moments she had spent with him - recollections spurred by the tree standing as a relic of those happy nights.
6. Perhaps the best example of Relicism is presented in verse 193 of the Tamil love anthology Kuruntokai. A girl, very much in love with a boy was expected to look emaciated as her lover had left the village to earn wealth and had not returned to her yet. But her girl companion finds her looking healthy and in good spirits, and so she asks her in considerable surprise how she was able to main her health and spirits during this long period of separation. The poem constitutes the reply of the girl.
She says, " In the night before he left he came to me and spent some time with me in the moon light. He had come adorned with mullai buds and we had a great time together. He left the Village, it is true and it is quite some time but my shoulders still give off that mullai smell and feel that he is present near her all the time. The aroma abides in the heart and it is this relic that has sustained her all through these dreary months of separation. Relicism is by its nature subtle; but in this example there is no physical relic, it is the ardently loving mind that has kept the relic of the mullai aroma all through; this reinforces the natural subtlety of the device and generates greater pleasure to the reader, for that reason.
7. Perhaps the best example of Relicism is presented in verse 193 (Ref: 3) of the Tamil love anthology Kuruntokai. A girl, very much in love with a boy was expected to look emaciated as her lover had left the village to earn wealth and had not returned to her yet. But her girl companion finds her looking healthy and in good spirits, and so she asks her in considerable surprise how she was able to main her health and spirits during this long period of separation. The poem constitutes the reply of the girl.
8. Relics turn up not merely in the lives of lovers but wherever there is true and deep emotion. Sangam poets have sung a number of poems on the emotional state of the members of the family of the girl who has eloped with her young lover. In Natrinai 143 (Ref 3A) the mother, unable to bear the separation from the daughter points to the bevy of small girls who bevy of small girls who used to play with her in the rand-spread front portion of the house and to the fence of orai trees around it, emphasising how they all are unhappy reminders, had relics of happier days when the girl was with them. Apart from these, the parrot petted so avidly by the girl, cries out in anguish, "O, my mother! wake up from your slumber!" and is not to be comforted.
The living articulate relic, the parrot is able to bring out the sorrow of the family more sharply then the now empty rand-spread playing field or the silent tress. It cries not in its agony and being a parrot, it is able to mouth it in discernible words. More importantly, the parrot is in the position of a child whom its foster-mother, the eloping girl is certain to miss; she would thus be in the same position as her mother who, she should have realised, would suffer torments as a result of the separation. "How I miss my pet the darling parrot! My mother back home will obviously be missing me badly! " would be the girl; train of emotion. Thus the relic here clearly provides a parallel of a suffering mother and is thus eloquently able to bring the emotional state of the sorrowing family on the morning after the elopement.
In Akananooru 165, (Ref: 4) the mother of the girl who has left the house the previous night with her lover finds the doll lying in the randy courtyard, neglected- the doll that was dear to her daughter. This relic brings to her mind the many incidents where her daughter had been seen tending to it lovingly as if it were her own daughter. The mother embraces the doll lamenting; she quite realizes that her daughter must have felt had to leave the doll behind; she must be missing her the same way as she herself, the mother was missing her daughter.
In the literature of later days, too, this concept of Relicism has been fully exploited by poets to bring out the sorrow caused by separation. Goda, known better as Andal in Tamil imagines herself to be a cowherd lass in deep love with Lord Krishna. But Krishna has other engagements and does not come to her to fulfil her passion. So, in desperation she cries out to her kinsmen to take her to various places frequented by Krishna earlier and leave her there as the very places would serve her as relics reminding her intensely of her lover. Among the places selected by her are the bank of the pond where the dreaded serpent Kaliyan was worsted by the Lord dancing on its hoods, the place in the woods, where, on the instructions of Krishna, his playmates stood waiting for the food to be brought by the Brahmin women every day and finally the courtyard of Nandagopan's house. These places have been selected for their special and close association with the lover who must have left his stamp of individuality on them, thus enhancing their relic value. Nammalvar beautifully brings out the concept of relicism in Thiruvaimozhi verse No.2447 (Ref: 5) . Here the mother torments the mental state of her daughter. The daughter is so much in love with the Lord that she finds the relic of Him in all the objects surrounding her, in every creation of the Universe. She puts her hand in the dust of the ground and says “this is the mud on the holy feet of Vamana had walked”. Thus the very insignificant mud itself serves as the relic which triggers the image of her beloved in her mind. She looks at the sky and essays that this is the direction where his abode of Vaikuntam exists. The very blue colour of the ocean reminds her of Him. The same idea is also expressed in the Upanishad where the beautiful expression of earth being shampooed with the holy dust of his feet is mentioned. (Ref 6)
Relicism is not an idea confined to Tamil literature. There are many places where poets have made adroit use of this to enhance the emotional appeal of passages. Valmiki, the first of poets has made use of it in the Kishkindha kanda, 6th sarga (Ref 7) where he shows the monkeys bringing the jewels of Sita had tied up in an upper cloth, and thrown down from Ravana's chariot in which she was being carried away. These jewels with their intense physical association with Sita possessed great relic value for Rama whose love for her was unique, overwhelming. He is so moved by the light of the jewels, he is unable to identify them and so has the job done by Lakshmana. And, on his confirming that at least the leg ornaments were definitely hers, Rama goes into a trauma of lamentation, swearing terrible vengeance against the king of the rakshasas who took her away from him.
There are several more such instances in Valmiki Ramayanam. Let us savour one more instance of relicism from the Adi Kavya. Here, Sri Rama after the death of Sita and one the onset of spring season remarks on the happy state of all animals. Rama remarks that all animals are playing with their mates whom no demon had taken away. There is a trace of jealousy evident here. This verse is about a peacock.
In the verses 68-70, of the same sarga describe Rama's great anguish at the return of spring season by which nature reminds him of the earlier (previous) spring seas when he and Sita were so happy together. So here, the spring season is the relic which reminds him of the happiness with Sita during the previous spring season. This is a very subtle relic again more or like the Tamil Verse we have seen " ".
This is a clear statement of the spring as a memory relic comparing the unpahh7 present with the happy part, the other conditions remaining unchanged.
In the famous Kaya Svapnavasavvadattam there is a very beautiful reference to the relic.
King believes Vasavadatta to be dead. His men discover her favourite Siva Ghoshasvata in the forests much encrusted with birds emissions and bring it to him. He deplores its cruel fate; how having enjoyed an intimate association with the queen is now discovered neglected, lying in the forest. He likes it and it bring back powerful memories of the queeen playing on it earlier. At the same time he recalls enjoying it for the close association it had had with her lying on her lap and touching her bosom.
Similarly Periazhvar Thirumozhi verses 325 and 326 (Ref 7A) portray Relicism when they describe the occasion when Hanuman hands out the signet ring of Rama to Sita in Asoka Vana. The signet ring, which is the relic here, immediately sends Sita to raptures.
Similar relic-effect is also described by Kamban in verses 63,64 & 65 of Urukkattu Patalam (Ref 8) . Earlier in Kishkintha Kandam, the relic of Sita’s jewels, dropped by her during her airborne abduction by Ravana trigger a powerful emotional reaction in Rama. Kamban say that the very signet of these relics made the entire person of Rama melt away, as described in verses 5 & 6 of Kalan Kaan Patalam (Ref 9).
We have seen that the Relicism is not an idea confined to Tamil literature. There are many places where poets have made adroit use of this to enhance the emotional appeal of passages. Valmiki, the first of poets has made use of it in the Kishkindha kanda, 6th sarga where he shows the monkeys bringing the jewels of Sita had tied up in an upper cloth, and thrown down from Ravana's chariot in which she was being carried away. These jewels with their intense physical association with Sita possessed great relic value for Rama whose love for her was unique, overwhelming. He is so moved by the light of the jewels, he is unable to identify them and so has the job done by Lakshmana. And, on his confirming that at least the leg ornaments were defsinitely hers, Rama goes into a trauma of lamentation, swearing terrible vengeance against the king of the rakshasas who took her away from him.
Kalidasa in his celebrated play Sakuntalam makes adroit use of relicism, as he only can do it, in the III Act of the play. King Dushyanta had been in the company of Sakuntala for some time when she is called away by her foster-mother Gautami. The King misses her very much and seeking some substitute satisfaction, he happens to notice the flower-bower where she had been spending much of the time, waiting to meet him. He sees the flowery bed crushed by her lying on it; the letter she was writing to him on a lotus leaf with her nail as the pen was lying on the floor, faded; he could see the bangle-like ornament she had made of lotus stems and worn by her for some time now fallen on the floor. His eager eyes drank in these relics preventing him from leaving the bower, though now empty, bereft of her.
The fact that the king was unable to leave the bower though Sakuntala had left it earlier is a clear indication of the power of relicism, as he was able to derive some satisfaction contemplating the objects used by her, especially the love-letter expressing her emotional state, remaining undelivered.
In Sanskrit dramaturgy this situation is broadly termed bindu which helps to keep up the love intact when there is a threat to it - which is a very general description of relicism as we have discussed here. The definition given in the Dasarupaka is as follows:
It may be seen that it makes bindu a major category in which not only relicism but many other an readily fit in with space for more. Relicism itself has not been identified as a device and described with examples in the works on aesthetics in Sanskrit or Tamil in the past.
In conclusion we may analyse the main features of relicism which are characteristic of the device: in this we may refer to the creator of the relic as A and the person utilising its relic value as B:-
a) An effective relic should have powerful personal emotional association with A for it to affect B and be valued by B as a relic.
b) Relic value is heightened if, in addition to the emotional association which the relic has with A, it has some association with B too. Thus the tree under which the hero stood awaiting his girl and which therefore is emotionally associated with him is clearly important to the girl as it was their rendezvous.
c) The value of a relic arises on account of its unique association with A and of the fact that only B recognises this. Its relic value is reduced, may be wholly lost, if it is used, loved or respected by a number of persons besides A. Here, it can be seen that relicism is diametrically opposed to symbolism where the symbol can be of value only if it is recognizable by many.
d) The relic itself need not be intrinsically valuable; it may be of no value to other; its value arises only because of its unique emotional association with A.
e) Contrary to the common standards of valuation, the relic value of an object is much heightened if it reveals neglect or Lack of attention and care bestowed on it by other after A leaves it, if it is faded and not likely to survive, as in the case of the plants nurtured by the girl prior to elopement, if it is totally useless and fit to be thrown away as in the case of the lotus stalk ornaments worn by Sakuntala. An extreme case is that of the physically non-existent mullai smell which lives on in the girl's heart months after the lover leaves; the relic here is a physical non-entity; but despite that or perhaps because of that, it possesses a high relic value for the girl.
f) An elementary condition for an object to possess relic value is that its user A is away and is not using it now. Its relic value is heightened if the chances of reunion between A and B are not high or do not appear high in B's estimation.
g) Another basic condition for an object to come to possess relic value is that it should be left behind by A and B is able to come by it. An object does not get the relic status, unless it is left behind by the user; and it does not come to possess value unless B finds it.
h) And, finally a relic comes to possess value only if there is deep emotional attachment between A and B, as otherwise in most cases it has not intrinsic value and may be regarded as rubbish fit to be thrown out.
i) An effective relic should have powerful personal emotional association with A for it to affect B and be valued by B as a relic.
j) Relic value is heightened if, in addition to the emotional association which the relic has with A, it has some association with B too. Thus the tree under which the hero stood awaiting his girl and which therefore is emotionally associated with him is clearly important to the girl as it was their rendezvous.
k) The value of a relic arises on account of its unique association with A and of the fact that only B recognises this. Its relic value is reduced, may be wholly lost, if it is used, loved or respected by a number of persons besides A. Here, it can be seen that relicism is diametrically opposed to symbolism where the symbol can be of value only if it is recognizable by many.
l) The relic itself need not be intrinsically valuable; it may be of no value to other; its value arises only because of its unique emotional association with A.
m) Contrary to the common standards of valuation, the relic value of an object is much heightened if it reveals neglect or Lack of attention and care bestowed on it by other after A leaves it, if it is faded and not likely to survive, as in the case of the plants nurtured by the girl prior to elopement, if it is totally useless and fit to be thrown away as in the case of the lotus stalk ornaments worn by Sakuntala. An extreme case is that of the physically non-existent mullai smell which lives on in the girl's heart months after the lover leaves; the relic here is a physical non-entity; but despite that or perhaps because of that, it possesses a high relic value for the girl.
n) An elementary condition for an object to possess relic value is that its user A is away and is not using it now. Its relic value is heightened if the chances of reunion between A and B are not high or do not appear high in B's estimation.
o) Another basic condition for an object to come to possess relic value is that it should be left behind by A and B is able to come by it. An object does not get the relic status, unless it is left behind by the user; and it does not come to possess value unless B finds it.
p) And, finally a relic comes to possess value only if there is deep emotional attachment between A and B, as otherwise in most cases it has not intrinsic value and may be regarded as rubbish fit to be thrown out.
King believes Vasavadatta to be dead. His men discover her favourite Siva Ghoshasvata in the forests much encrusted with birds emissions and bring it to him. He deplores its cruel fate; how having enjoyed an intimate association with the queen is now discovered neglected, lying in the forest. He likes it and it bring back powerful memories of the queen playing on it earlier. At the same time he recalls enjoying it for the close association it had had with her lying on her lap and touching her bosom.
Thursday, August 30, 2007
BUDDHIST VALUE SYSTEM FOR UNIVERSAL PEACE
From the dawn of civilisation, man mankind has few several moments of continued peace. History is replete with wars which have been fought in the name of religion, conquest, for expanding economic domain etc. One of the major contradictions of human mind is that while we so desperately yearn for peace, we say "yes" willingly to war. Now there is re-emergence of the concepts of “Holy War” and “Just War”, which were the shibboleths of middle ages. There is nothing holy or just about a war. As mentioned by Roger Walsh in his book “Staying Alive”, “War can no longer be regarded as a legitimate means of obtaining national goals”. It is now absolutely necessary that we follow the message of peace; it is also more necessary in present times where leaders who make war are often geographically and emotionally distanced from the theatres of war and the consequences of their decisions. Apart from the war in the theatre, there are also wars now on the minds of man. For absolute peace of mankind, all forms of war should stop. What is the means for this ?
The UNESCO charter begins with the preamble “Since it is in the minds of men that wars are created, it is in the minds of men that the fortresses against war must be erected”. This is very much similar to the first verses of Dhammapada which states that the “Mind precedes all unwholesome states and is their chief ; all are all mind wrought. If with an impure mind a person speak or acts, misery follows him like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox. Whoever speaks or acts with a pure mind, contentment and peace follows him as the wheel of the cart follows that of the ox" (Dhammapada V 1.2). In this paper we would see how teachings of Buddha can be used to promote social harmony and universal peace.
Scientist Albert Einstein had made a statement that “although He was not a religious man, if he had been one he would have been a Buddhist” 1
While in many religions, peace is pursued as an ideal, in Buddhism, it is central to the structure of the Budhha Dhamma; Peace is integral to Buddhism and is an indispensable part of Buddhist understanding of Ultimate Reality of Nibbana and the way the Ultimate Reality impinges on mundane Reality. In the Sakka-Panha Sutta in the Digha Nikaya, the goal of Dhamma is described as the attainment of “Cessation, Peace, the Higher Spiritual Knowledge, Enlightenment and Nibbana”.2 The attainment of peace is the characteristic of Transcendental Reality.
Buddhist teachings delineate that peace is integral to the goal and also to the path, the "Tao". For this, attainment of two great virtues of Wisdom and Compassion is stressed. Liberation comes through the attainment of Wisdom and from Wisdom, as sine qua non, Compassion flows. The peace that relates to Wisdom is “Inner Peace” (Ajjhatta-Santi) (Sutta Nipata 837), which is the peace of inner mind. From the inner peace comes Compassion which turns this inner peace to outer world. At the same time, inner peace is deepened.
As mentioned in the beginning, mind is a source of peace and harmony as also of violence and sufferings. The Dhammapada says, "Mind is the foremost of all Realities Mind is the chief and all are mind-wrought. Who ever speaks or acts with a pure mind, contentment/ peace follows him as the wheel of the cart follows the foot of the ox.3
The importance of Buddhism as a facilitator of world peace lies in the fact that it has got certain unique characteristic. First and the foremost is that “it is not culture bound” i.e, to say that it is not restricted to any society, place or ethnic group.
The second aspect is the pragmatism of Buddhism and it practical orientation. It is not interested in theoretical questioning and metaphysics. It seeks to identify the cause of the problem with a view to root it out. The pragmatic approach of Buddhism is exemplified in the words of Buddha in the “Choola malunkya Sutta” in Majjhima Nikaya, where Buddha gives the parable pf the wounded man. He says that when a person is wounded by arrow instead of wishing to know who shot the arrow, the direction from which it cam, what is the arrow head made of, etc, he should get the arrow removed first.
Thirdly, is the importance stressed by Buddha on verifying the truth by the personal experience, as exemplified by his advice to the Kalamas contained in Kesia Puttia Sutta. He advised them to know everything in the light of their own experience instead of being guided by other people’s words. In this context, it can be said that often wars and other forms of psychological assaults are created by a mass hysteria by stirring the minds of the populace. Once a person seeks to find the truth through his experience, he would find war are not necessary and peace should be sought.
Mind is to be used as a kind of "private test tube" for acquisition of knowledge, Buddha stresses that the mind should be engaged in objective observation. The therapy starts from the mind. It is also very similar to the Hindu idea.
“Manaeva manushayanam karanam Bandha Mokshayo: "
For the world peace to be initiated through Compassion, it is necessary to purify the mind. The Buddhist path, (or Tao) teaches how to purify the mind and to initiate the process of Compassion to transform the world into a peaceful entity. Buddhist system teaches "Dhamma" which is a system of "psychological ethics". As quoted by Prof. George Bond in his essay on the “Promoting Social Harmony and Universal Peace through a Buddhist Value System”, Russel Hitterger mentions that "ethics of virtue requires a teleological scheme that links together “man as he is” with “man as he might become were his telos fulfilled”. The Virtues enable a human being to attain what Abraham Maslow calls as "self-actualisation" or the virtue-potential of his nature. An ethics of virtue stresses cultivating the qualities "as they are" rather than referring them as "duties". Virtues acts have to be performed from the basic will of man and not to be fulfilled with intentions behind them. In the words of David Hume “The external performance has no merit; all virtuous actions derive their merit only from virtuous motives”4
While the Western system delineates the "hierarchy of cardinal virtues" with relation to the ideal or goal, Buddhist system is based on the functioning of the mind, which would contribute towards "Inner Peace" and "Outer Peace". Buddhist system of psychological ethics is based on a precise explanation of the functioning of the Mind. This is clinically arranged with the concepts of "Kusala moola" and "akusala moola" - the profitable and unprofitable root terms or root virtues. (This is similar to what the Hindu texts call as "vasanas"). The root virtue of kusala moola operates at the level of will, and prompt the person to perform positive acts. The akusala moola form the defects of human character. The akusala moola is further delieneated as lobha, dosa and moha (greed, hatred and delusion) “The three wholesome root are the main criteria by which a state of consciousness is determined to be wholesome. These terms constitute the root of the entire system. They are the motive power which impel the other simultaneously arisen powers to act in the service of that motive” 5
What is the connection between these root and the goal of peace?
Each culture delineates virtues and vics depending on its understanding of nature. Inner Peace as mentioned by Prof. George Bond is an opposite quality to non profitable qualities like greed, anger, delusion. To attain inner peace, Akusal Moolas have to be eradicated. Buddha declares the Supreme goal as pacification of desire, hatred and delusion (Majjhima Nikaya, 111 246).
Why do this unprofitable or unpeaceful qualities arise?
According to Buddhist doctrine, they are related to the basic flaw of desire “Tanha” desire which is the source of things being dear or not dear. This would give birth to the feeling, this is how they come to be” 6
The violence arose in the world largely as a result of people acting propelled by greed, delusion and hatred, as brought out by Rousseau. Since people lacked wisdom and lived in ignorance of the Dhamma, they failed to practice charity. The Buddhist Dhamma points out that from the lack of charity came poverty and from poverty arose qualities like theft, violence, murder, lying and all of the other unvirtuous qualities of humanity. When the mind is full of defilement, there is no peace and thus negative qualities arise from that.
Similar Ideas have been brought out in Bhagwat Gita
"When a men thinks of objects "attachments" for them arises; from attachment, "desire" is born; from desire arises "anger" (Bhagvat Gita II 62)"
From anger comes delusion, from delusion "loss of memory"; from loss of memory "the destruction of discrimination"; from destruction of disccrimination, he "perishes" (Bhagvat Gita II 63)
True peace appears within when the mind is free from defilement. External objects do not provide peace. The Buddhist philosophy shows the way as to how to reach that stage in the world what becomes is free of greed, hatred and delusion. To reach a world shaped by non-attachment, peace and wisdom, we have to follow the path of Dhamma. The elements of the path are Sila, Samadhi and Panna. When you practice Sila, it goes to eliminate the unprofitable roots.
Silas encompass the 10 Kusala Kammapathas.
Actually these 10 Kammapathas directs us to abstain from.
1. Killing - panatipata
2. Taking what is not given voluntarily adinnadana
3. Carnal Misconduct - kamesu micchacara
4. Telling lies - musavada
5. Talking ill of others - pisuna vacaya
6. Harsh speech - pharusa vacaya
7. Frivolous talk - samphappalapa
8. Covetousness - abhijjhaya
9. Malevolence - byapada
10. Deluded view - miccha ditthiya
As against this, cultivation of mental actions like non-covetousness – (anabhijjha,) benevolence - (avyapada) and correct understanding (samma ditthi) help to create inner peace. The Nettiprakarana gives a further clarification linking them to Akusala Moolas. According to this, hatred is the root cause for the action of Kamesu micchacara and pharusa vacaya . Stealing, misconduct in sensual desire and speaking falsely are generated by the root, greed – (lobha), and frivolous speech springs up from by delusion , moha. According to Buddhaghosa. in many cases actions are motivated by the roots of greed or hatred also have delusion as a root. Thus killing arises not only from the root of hatred but also from that of delusion. Wrong conducts in the three categories in the body, speech or mind are the causes of mind’s unprofitable state.
Famed Buddhist Scholar Bhikku Dr. Bodhi mentions that “each percept has a tangible expression of the corresponding attitude of minds which flows in the form of concrete action a beam of a light of inner purity” 7
Thus there is recursive logic in the inner purity of mind and positive reinforcement of virtues.
How these Buddhist values help to promote Universal Peace? As mentioned by Dr George Bond and Bhikku Bodhi one may conform to mental cultivations with rules of Buddhist understanding of peace as the four Brahma Viharas i.e. Development of Metta, Karuna, Mudita and Upekkha. The cultivation of these Brahma Viharas help one obtain inner peace and facilitates outer peace in the world. The Buddha said “If any one comes forth develops the four Brahma Viharas, he gains inward calm or peace (Majjhima Nikaya I 284).
These are the motive practice that come under the heading of Samadhi. They also reflect the positive cognitive state of mind Metta and karuna are the anti theses to desire and self awareness when practiced, they act as antedote to bring inner peace which leads for foundation of peace in the external world . In the next stage of Upekkha or equanimity, the practitioner positions himself in the centre of his being. The mind is not swayed by any desire, which entrusts him with a perspective or the arising of the inner enjoyment. It is the reality behind the dualities of life.
As mentioned by Ven. Dhammandanda “Buddhist Values are based on the well being progress, freedom and happiness of all living being. The 10 Kammapathas are to be practiced for purification of morality, renunciation, Wisdom, energy, passion. Thus it can be seen to attain Universal peace we have to develop the qualities of Metta, Karuna, Mudita and uppekha. Let us see them in detail:
METTA:
Development of Metta or "loving kindness" invites us to enter the boundless heart of Buddha, to the seat of loving kindness. In the words of Dr.Patricia Sherwood, "It enobles what appear to be menial or repetitive tasks, helps defuse conflict and inspire the community to give energy. The eight fold path offers the principles along which it directs energy." Right knowledge and right attitude arise through the understanding of the interdependence of self and other. Right speech, action and livelihood is expressed through honesty and compassion. Right mindfulness and composure direct the quality of participation in community projects. Thus Metta creates symbiosis among the participants to develop individual qualities which can bring harmony and peace in the world.
KARUNA OR COMPASSION
Compassion is the translation of Metta into action for the well being of others. The compassion of Buddha appears in many Mahayana forms like the Kuan Yin of China, Kannon in Japan, Tara in Tibet as "hearer of the cries of the world".
To reach Boddhisattva state, it is not a merely individual liberation. As stated by Robert Truman "the coming to Buddha hood is a social event involving a whole field of sentient beings, whose collective existence must be developed to the point where the whole land is transformed, from an impure land of violence and exploitation and suffering into a pure land. We need human qualities such as moral scruples, compassion and humility.
Compassion implies radical action to transform one's consciousness and that of the social order into one which is based on social justice and a recognition of the rights and needs of all living beings. The sort of social re-engineering through Buddha was also started in India by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar. Compassion is a powerful form because it has, got its fountain head in open heart. The teachings of Buddha would be a powerful social force for turning humanity from violence to compassion.
MUDITA:
Mudita is "joy in another's joy". Mudita is complement to compassion with another's sorrow. It encourages us to see the best in humanity. A person with Mudita will see, as Shakespeare observes ;
"Tongue in trees
Books in running brooks
Sermons in Stones
And Good in everything".
This is the potential to see for the victory of peace on earth. Mudita also celebrates diversity of culture with respect for the needs of living beings. Sorting out the difference of opinion will lead to harmony and encouraged delicate interdependence among all lives. Buddhism wants all traditions celebrate their richness and variety, instead of trying to reduce all to faceless uniformity. Ophulus in his article on Buddhist politics sees the profound poitential of such a value to world peace. "A tolerant and convivial pluralism which rejoices in the richness of human diversity implies a global fraternity, in which powerful countries encourage others to retain and develop their won distinctive cultures and self reliant societies. Such a plural society would, at all levels, have the same untidy harmony as nature itself, with cooperation and conflict resolution as its great social arts.
UPEKKHA:
it means equanimity in the face of praise or blame. Upekkha promises sanity and peace in an increasingly arrogant and explosive world. As mentioned in Dhamma Pada "Self Conquest is indeed far greater than the conquest of all other folk; neither a god nor a Gandhabba nor Mara with Brahma can win back the victory of such a person who is self subdued and ever lives in restraint. Such an attitude releases one from stress and strains of modern life.
CONCLUSION:
Thus if we want to achieve universal peace, we need to follow the Buddhist values enshrined in the four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path and the Ten perfections. In the Sutta Nipata, Ajita, alluding to the flaws of human nature as flooding rivers, asks Buddha how to stop them. The Buddha replies, "Any river can be stopped with the dam of mindfulness. I call it the flood stopper. And with wisdom, you can close the flood gates".
Let us all develop that mindfulness and wisdom to achieve Universal Peace.
REFERENCES:
1. The Tree of Enlightenment, Peter Dalla Santina. The Buddha Educational Foundation, Taipei-1997 Page.3
2. Digha Nikaya Vol.2 Page 2 84
3. Dhammapada Chapter V, 1-2
4. David Hume’s Treatise of Humanity 3 para. By William Frankana,
Printsal Ink 1973 (Page 63)
5. Nyanaponika Thera, Abdidhamma Studies page 78
6. Cakkavatti Sihananda Sutta (Dhamma II 276) Page 4.
7. Bhikku Bodhi, Nourshing the roots and other Buddhist essays, Buddhist Educational Society, Kandy 1978.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Burtt, E. (1982) The Teachings of the Compassionate Buddha, Mentor,
Chicago.
2. Chah, Ajahn (1994) A Still Forest Pool, Theosophical house, Illinois.
3. Chah, Ajahn (1989) See the Way: Buddhist Reflections on the Spiritual Life, Amaravati, U.K.
4. Macy, J. (1991) World as Lover, World as Self, Parallex, California.
5. K.N.Jayatilleke, Buddhism and Peace, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1962, p.3.
6. Russel Hittinger, "After MacIntyre: Natural law Theory, Virtue Ethics and Eudaimonia" International Philosophical Quarterly Vol.XXIX, No.4, (dec.1989), p.453.
7. Philippa Foot, Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), p.2.
8. Max Weber, The Religion of India, (New York: The Free Press, 1967) p.214.
9. A.Guruge, Return to Righteousness (Colombo Government Press, 1965), p.3.
The UNESCO charter begins with the preamble “Since it is in the minds of men that wars are created, it is in the minds of men that the fortresses against war must be erected”. This is very much similar to the first verses of Dhammapada which states that the “Mind precedes all unwholesome states and is their chief ; all are all mind wrought. If with an impure mind a person speak or acts, misery follows him like the wheel that follows the foot of the ox. Whoever speaks or acts with a pure mind, contentment and peace follows him as the wheel of the cart follows that of the ox" (Dhammapada V 1.2). In this paper we would see how teachings of Buddha can be used to promote social harmony and universal peace.
Scientist Albert Einstein had made a statement that “although He was not a religious man, if he had been one he would have been a Buddhist” 1
While in many religions, peace is pursued as an ideal, in Buddhism, it is central to the structure of the Budhha Dhamma; Peace is integral to Buddhism and is an indispensable part of Buddhist understanding of Ultimate Reality of Nibbana and the way the Ultimate Reality impinges on mundane Reality. In the Sakka-Panha Sutta in the Digha Nikaya, the goal of Dhamma is described as the attainment of “Cessation, Peace, the Higher Spiritual Knowledge, Enlightenment and Nibbana”.2 The attainment of peace is the characteristic of Transcendental Reality.
Buddhist teachings delineate that peace is integral to the goal and also to the path, the "Tao". For this, attainment of two great virtues of Wisdom and Compassion is stressed. Liberation comes through the attainment of Wisdom and from Wisdom, as sine qua non, Compassion flows. The peace that relates to Wisdom is “Inner Peace” (Ajjhatta-Santi) (Sutta Nipata 837), which is the peace of inner mind. From the inner peace comes Compassion which turns this inner peace to outer world. At the same time, inner peace is deepened.
As mentioned in the beginning, mind is a source of peace and harmony as also of violence and sufferings. The Dhammapada says, "Mind is the foremost of all Realities Mind is the chief and all are mind-wrought. Who ever speaks or acts with a pure mind, contentment/ peace follows him as the wheel of the cart follows the foot of the ox.3
The importance of Buddhism as a facilitator of world peace lies in the fact that it has got certain unique characteristic. First and the foremost is that “it is not culture bound” i.e, to say that it is not restricted to any society, place or ethnic group.
The second aspect is the pragmatism of Buddhism and it practical orientation. It is not interested in theoretical questioning and metaphysics. It seeks to identify the cause of the problem with a view to root it out. The pragmatic approach of Buddhism is exemplified in the words of Buddha in the “Choola malunkya Sutta” in Majjhima Nikaya, where Buddha gives the parable pf the wounded man. He says that when a person is wounded by arrow instead of wishing to know who shot the arrow, the direction from which it cam, what is the arrow head made of, etc, he should get the arrow removed first.
Thirdly, is the importance stressed by Buddha on verifying the truth by the personal experience, as exemplified by his advice to the Kalamas contained in Kesia Puttia Sutta. He advised them to know everything in the light of their own experience instead of being guided by other people’s words. In this context, it can be said that often wars and other forms of psychological assaults are created by a mass hysteria by stirring the minds of the populace. Once a person seeks to find the truth through his experience, he would find war are not necessary and peace should be sought.
Mind is to be used as a kind of "private test tube" for acquisition of knowledge, Buddha stresses that the mind should be engaged in objective observation. The therapy starts from the mind. It is also very similar to the Hindu idea.
“Manaeva manushayanam karanam Bandha Mokshayo: "
For the world peace to be initiated through Compassion, it is necessary to purify the mind. The Buddhist path, (or Tao) teaches how to purify the mind and to initiate the process of Compassion to transform the world into a peaceful entity. Buddhist system teaches "Dhamma" which is a system of "psychological ethics". As quoted by Prof. George Bond in his essay on the “Promoting Social Harmony and Universal Peace through a Buddhist Value System”, Russel Hitterger mentions that "ethics of virtue requires a teleological scheme that links together “man as he is” with “man as he might become were his telos fulfilled”. The Virtues enable a human being to attain what Abraham Maslow calls as "self-actualisation" or the virtue-potential of his nature. An ethics of virtue stresses cultivating the qualities "as they are" rather than referring them as "duties". Virtues acts have to be performed from the basic will of man and not to be fulfilled with intentions behind them. In the words of David Hume “The external performance has no merit; all virtuous actions derive their merit only from virtuous motives”4
While the Western system delineates the "hierarchy of cardinal virtues" with relation to the ideal or goal, Buddhist system is based on the functioning of the mind, which would contribute towards "Inner Peace" and "Outer Peace". Buddhist system of psychological ethics is based on a precise explanation of the functioning of the Mind. This is clinically arranged with the concepts of "Kusala moola" and "akusala moola" - the profitable and unprofitable root terms or root virtues. (This is similar to what the Hindu texts call as "vasanas"). The root virtue of kusala moola operates at the level of will, and prompt the person to perform positive acts. The akusala moola form the defects of human character. The akusala moola is further delieneated as lobha, dosa and moha (greed, hatred and delusion) “The three wholesome root are the main criteria by which a state of consciousness is determined to be wholesome. These terms constitute the root of the entire system. They are the motive power which impel the other simultaneously arisen powers to act in the service of that motive” 5
What is the connection between these root and the goal of peace?
Each culture delineates virtues and vics depending on its understanding of nature. Inner Peace as mentioned by Prof. George Bond is an opposite quality to non profitable qualities like greed, anger, delusion. To attain inner peace, Akusal Moolas have to be eradicated. Buddha declares the Supreme goal as pacification of desire, hatred and delusion (Majjhima Nikaya, 111 246).
Why do this unprofitable or unpeaceful qualities arise?
According to Buddhist doctrine, they are related to the basic flaw of desire “Tanha” desire which is the source of things being dear or not dear. This would give birth to the feeling, this is how they come to be” 6
The violence arose in the world largely as a result of people acting propelled by greed, delusion and hatred, as brought out by Rousseau. Since people lacked wisdom and lived in ignorance of the Dhamma, they failed to practice charity. The Buddhist Dhamma points out that from the lack of charity came poverty and from poverty arose qualities like theft, violence, murder, lying and all of the other unvirtuous qualities of humanity. When the mind is full of defilement, there is no peace and thus negative qualities arise from that.
Similar Ideas have been brought out in Bhagwat Gita
"When a men thinks of objects "attachments" for them arises; from attachment, "desire" is born; from desire arises "anger" (Bhagvat Gita II 62)"
From anger comes delusion, from delusion "loss of memory"; from loss of memory "the destruction of discrimination"; from destruction of disccrimination, he "perishes" (Bhagvat Gita II 63)
True peace appears within when the mind is free from defilement. External objects do not provide peace. The Buddhist philosophy shows the way as to how to reach that stage in the world what becomes is free of greed, hatred and delusion. To reach a world shaped by non-attachment, peace and wisdom, we have to follow the path of Dhamma. The elements of the path are Sila, Samadhi and Panna. When you practice Sila, it goes to eliminate the unprofitable roots.
Silas encompass the 10 Kusala Kammapathas.
Actually these 10 Kammapathas directs us to abstain from.
1. Killing - panatipata
2. Taking what is not given voluntarily adinnadana
3. Carnal Misconduct - kamesu micchacara
4. Telling lies - musavada
5. Talking ill of others - pisuna vacaya
6. Harsh speech - pharusa vacaya
7. Frivolous talk - samphappalapa
8. Covetousness - abhijjhaya
9. Malevolence - byapada
10. Deluded view - miccha ditthiya
As against this, cultivation of mental actions like non-covetousness – (anabhijjha,) benevolence - (avyapada) and correct understanding (samma ditthi) help to create inner peace. The Nettiprakarana gives a further clarification linking them to Akusala Moolas. According to this, hatred is the root cause for the action of Kamesu micchacara and pharusa vacaya . Stealing, misconduct in sensual desire and speaking falsely are generated by the root, greed – (lobha), and frivolous speech springs up from by delusion , moha. According to Buddhaghosa. in many cases actions are motivated by the roots of greed or hatred also have delusion as a root. Thus killing arises not only from the root of hatred but also from that of delusion. Wrong conducts in the three categories in the body, speech or mind are the causes of mind’s unprofitable state.
Famed Buddhist Scholar Bhikku Dr. Bodhi mentions that “each percept has a tangible expression of the corresponding attitude of minds which flows in the form of concrete action a beam of a light of inner purity” 7
Thus there is recursive logic in the inner purity of mind and positive reinforcement of virtues.
How these Buddhist values help to promote Universal Peace? As mentioned by Dr George Bond and Bhikku Bodhi one may conform to mental cultivations with rules of Buddhist understanding of peace as the four Brahma Viharas i.e. Development of Metta, Karuna, Mudita and Upekkha. The cultivation of these Brahma Viharas help one obtain inner peace and facilitates outer peace in the world. The Buddha said “If any one comes forth develops the four Brahma Viharas, he gains inward calm or peace (Majjhima Nikaya I 284).
These are the motive practice that come under the heading of Samadhi. They also reflect the positive cognitive state of mind Metta and karuna are the anti theses to desire and self awareness when practiced, they act as antedote to bring inner peace which leads for foundation of peace in the external world . In the next stage of Upekkha or equanimity, the practitioner positions himself in the centre of his being. The mind is not swayed by any desire, which entrusts him with a perspective or the arising of the inner enjoyment. It is the reality behind the dualities of life.
As mentioned by Ven. Dhammandanda “Buddhist Values are based on the well being progress, freedom and happiness of all living being. The 10 Kammapathas are to be practiced for purification of morality, renunciation, Wisdom, energy, passion. Thus it can be seen to attain Universal peace we have to develop the qualities of Metta, Karuna, Mudita and uppekha. Let us see them in detail:
METTA:
Development of Metta or "loving kindness" invites us to enter the boundless heart of Buddha, to the seat of loving kindness. In the words of Dr.Patricia Sherwood, "It enobles what appear to be menial or repetitive tasks, helps defuse conflict and inspire the community to give energy. The eight fold path offers the principles along which it directs energy." Right knowledge and right attitude arise through the understanding of the interdependence of self and other. Right speech, action and livelihood is expressed through honesty and compassion. Right mindfulness and composure direct the quality of participation in community projects. Thus Metta creates symbiosis among the participants to develop individual qualities which can bring harmony and peace in the world.
KARUNA OR COMPASSION
Compassion is the translation of Metta into action for the well being of others. The compassion of Buddha appears in many Mahayana forms like the Kuan Yin of China, Kannon in Japan, Tara in Tibet as "hearer of the cries of the world".
To reach Boddhisattva state, it is not a merely individual liberation. As stated by Robert Truman "the coming to Buddha hood is a social event involving a whole field of sentient beings, whose collective existence must be developed to the point where the whole land is transformed, from an impure land of violence and exploitation and suffering into a pure land. We need human qualities such as moral scruples, compassion and humility.
Compassion implies radical action to transform one's consciousness and that of the social order into one which is based on social justice and a recognition of the rights and needs of all living beings. The sort of social re-engineering through Buddha was also started in India by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar. Compassion is a powerful form because it has, got its fountain head in open heart. The teachings of Buddha would be a powerful social force for turning humanity from violence to compassion.
MUDITA:
Mudita is "joy in another's joy". Mudita is complement to compassion with another's sorrow. It encourages us to see the best in humanity. A person with Mudita will see, as Shakespeare observes ;
"Tongue in trees
Books in running brooks
Sermons in Stones
And Good in everything".
This is the potential to see for the victory of peace on earth. Mudita also celebrates diversity of culture with respect for the needs of living beings. Sorting out the difference of opinion will lead to harmony and encouraged delicate interdependence among all lives. Buddhism wants all traditions celebrate their richness and variety, instead of trying to reduce all to faceless uniformity. Ophulus in his article on Buddhist politics sees the profound poitential of such a value to world peace. "A tolerant and convivial pluralism which rejoices in the richness of human diversity implies a global fraternity, in which powerful countries encourage others to retain and develop their won distinctive cultures and self reliant societies. Such a plural society would, at all levels, have the same untidy harmony as nature itself, with cooperation and conflict resolution as its great social arts.
UPEKKHA:
it means equanimity in the face of praise or blame. Upekkha promises sanity and peace in an increasingly arrogant and explosive world. As mentioned in Dhamma Pada "Self Conquest is indeed far greater than the conquest of all other folk; neither a god nor a Gandhabba nor Mara with Brahma can win back the victory of such a person who is self subdued and ever lives in restraint. Such an attitude releases one from stress and strains of modern life.
CONCLUSION:
Thus if we want to achieve universal peace, we need to follow the Buddhist values enshrined in the four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path and the Ten perfections. In the Sutta Nipata, Ajita, alluding to the flaws of human nature as flooding rivers, asks Buddha how to stop them. The Buddha replies, "Any river can be stopped with the dam of mindfulness. I call it the flood stopper. And with wisdom, you can close the flood gates".
Let us all develop that mindfulness and wisdom to achieve Universal Peace.
REFERENCES:
1. The Tree of Enlightenment, Peter Dalla Santina. The Buddha Educational Foundation, Taipei-1997 Page.3
2. Digha Nikaya Vol.2 Page 2 84
3. Dhammapada Chapter V, 1-2
4. David Hume’s Treatise of Humanity 3 para. By William Frankana,
Printsal Ink 1973 (Page 63)
5. Nyanaponika Thera, Abdidhamma Studies page 78
6. Cakkavatti Sihananda Sutta (Dhamma II 276) Page 4.
7. Bhikku Bodhi, Nourshing the roots and other Buddhist essays, Buddhist Educational Society, Kandy 1978.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Burtt, E. (1982) The Teachings of the Compassionate Buddha, Mentor,
Chicago.
2. Chah, Ajahn (1994) A Still Forest Pool, Theosophical house, Illinois.
3. Chah, Ajahn (1989) See the Way: Buddhist Reflections on the Spiritual Life, Amaravati, U.K.
4. Macy, J. (1991) World as Lover, World as Self, Parallex, California.
5. K.N.Jayatilleke, Buddhism and Peace, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1962, p.3.
6. Russel Hittinger, "After MacIntyre: Natural law Theory, Virtue Ethics and Eudaimonia" International Philosophical Quarterly Vol.XXIX, No.4, (dec.1989), p.453.
7. Philippa Foot, Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), p.2.
8. Max Weber, The Religion of India, (New York: The Free Press, 1967) p.214.
9. A.Guruge, Return to Righteousness (Colombo Government Press, 1965), p.3.
“ DELINEATION OF EVIL IN THE MAHABHARATA AND ‘THE GANG OF FOUR’ ”.
Introduction :
Epics of India:
Itihasa, originated and grown in the context of ancient Indian civilization is very different from the European epic. The modern concept of history, imported to India from the west, has no alignment with Ithihasa. The use of chronology in terms of ordered sequence of intentions and actions rather than in the framework of dates and years is characteristic of Indian thought. In such a view history becomes infused with a purpose higher than merely to record the rise and fall of dynasties and succession of wars, which mention the chronicles of mere men. Noble qualities made them brave manfully with the work of mishaps.
Indian Epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata have a very different objective from that with which Homer’s epics were composed. It was the custom in Homer’s days for bards to compose and recite tales of heroism in verse and get largess from rich patrons. There appears to have been little incentive for these bards to propagate ethical values through their poetic compositions. And the stories they selected to balladize were not based on ethical concepts; A glaring instance is Helen who was abducted by the Trojans, refusing to go back to Greece with the conquering Agamemnan as she preferred to continue to live in Troy. A similar reaction in an Indian epic would be like Sita refusing to go back to Rama as she preferred Lanka to a life in Ayodhya. This kind of reaction is unthinkable from a pativrata in India and Indian epics were constructed on a solid ethical base.
On Agamemnan defeating the Trojans, he returns triumphant to Greece. But his wife Clytemnestra is not exactly happy at the forth coming reunion with her husband. So she orders the construction of a platform where the triumphant king would be felicitated but the platform was to be on weak foundation so that it might collapse on Agamemnan ascending it. Fancy Rama or Yudhishtira meeting a situation like this after their triumph in the great wars that were forced on them !
During the Trojan war, when a Trojan leader, unable to bear the pressure on him tried to surrender to the younger brother of Agamemnan, the latter was listening to him with sympathy when Agamemnan came up and upbraided him. And saying “ you take good care of your foes !” he struck down the Trojan who was bowing low to the second in command. Now it would seem uncivil if we remind ourselves of how Rama treated Vibhishana when he surrendered to him before the war. When the wiser among Rama’s counselors advised him to accept the rakshasa as it would be advantageous to Rama’s side, he gives a classic reply that even if the acceptance of Vibhishana was deleterious to his interests, he would still accept him as no one seeking surrender should in any circumstance be rejected.
Characteristics of Indian Epics – The principle of Dharma:
Thus the epics of India are very characteristic of the objective of thoughtful Indian down the centuries-that one’s life should be regulated not by self-interest but by ethical principles whatever the cost. While both the epics have this clear objective before them, they present it in distinctive ways. In the Ramayana there is little preaching; where necessary, a very brief passage expresses the dharmic principle as in the scene where Vibhishana is accepted by Rama. Even Vasishta the family priest of the kings of Ayodhya does not indulge in long speeches on dharma. Later writes realizing the preaching potential of vasishta have composed huge volumes like the Gnanavasishta and Yogavasishta. Again though Valmikis Rama does not preach to Lakshmana (a captive audience in the forest), a writer saw the potential and composed the Rama Gita.
But the absence of Verbal preaching in the Ramayana does not make it deficient as a book of ethics. For the characters themselves with Rama in the lead live the principles effectively often overcoming with great resolution the temptation to break them. This naturally has the effect of putting across the dharmic concepts most effectively.
Dharma in Mahabharata:
In the Mahabharata, on the other hand, every opportunity for the oral preaching of dharma is seized upon with eagerness by many characters. Whole parvas are given over to such sermonizing, lending great strength to the modern critical view that these are later day interpolation.
Anandavardhana, (9th century A.D.) was the first great Indian critic to highlight the fact that the Mahabharata is at once a saastra (scripture) and a kavya (ornate poem). When deemed as a saastra, its major concern is only with the propagation of the four purusarthas or human values, viz. dharma, artha, kama and moksha. The Mahabharata, for the first time, canalizes into a system all the varied ideas of ancient humanist thinkers of the land, and answers the questions: what is the nature of perfect life for man on earth? This universal and spiritual potential of man is the bed rock on which the entire epic structure is reared; and it is never forgotten that it can be grasped only by the adept few.
Vyasa himself is said to have summarized the quintessence of his teaching in the following verse:
“I am shouting at the top of my voice with upraised arms! But, alas, no one listens to me: It is only by way of dharma that one can achieve artha as well as kama. And why don’t you pursue it wholeheartedly?”.
URDHVA BAHUR VIRAMYESHA
NAA KASCHIT SRUNOTI ME
DHARMARTTHASCA KAAMASCA
SA KIMARITHAM NA SEVYATE
The way of wisdom is that the demands of passionate desire and craze for selfish possessions must be regulated by the norms of ethical conduct.
That dream can become a reality only when a keen awareness of the universal moral law that underlines the human situation becomes a reality, and our actions come to be attuned to the demands made by that Eternal Law of life, viz. dharma.
The Theme of Mahabharata:
The Theme of Mahabharata is the drama of the struggle between good and evil. The good ultimately triumphs As poet Subramanya Bharathi says “Like the Serpent swallowing the sun during the eclipse, dharma will be occluded by deceit. Ultimately good will succeed. Evil will lose out”. Sri Aurobindo points out that “the same drama of human life in Mahabharata is also played out at the cosmic plane, embodying the vedic notions of the struggle between the godheads of truth, light and unity the powers of darkness, division and falsehood which is brought out from the spiritual religious and internal into the outer intellectual ,ethical and vital plane. Here it takes the double form of personal and political struggle- the personal conflict between typical and representative personalities embodying the Indian Dharma and others who are embodiments of Asuric egoism and self-interest and misuse of dharma. The personal struggle culminates in a political battle ending in the establishment of a new rule of righteousness and justice, an empire of dharma, uniting warring races substituting the ambitions and arrogance of kings and aristocratic clans with the probity calm, and peace of a just and humane empire. It is the old struggle between the Devas and Asuras, God and Titan but represented in terms of human life “.
In the Mahabharata, Sage Vyasa transmutes the human conflict to a divine plane. The Adi Parva opens with the Earth, being overpopulated and tyrannised by diabolical forces ,approaching Lord Brahma to save her, Brahma directs the gods that they should help Mother Earth by being born there with a part of themselves on earth to contest the evil forces. The gods led by Indra go to Narayana to request Him to incarnate on earth for destroying the evil forces.
The epic lists out the incarnation of both gods and demons on earth, including those who participate by playing minor role. For instance, Jarasandha is the incarnation of Viparachitti and Hiranya Kasyapa is born as Sisupala. Among the major players, Krishna is the incarnation of Narayana. The evil Kali is born as Duryodhana who would ultimately serve the purpose of relieving the Earth of her burden by launching on wicked schemes born out of jealousy and avarice. The emergence of evil forces is again referred to in Adi Parva, Stri Parva and Asrama Vasika Parva. Thus the theme of Mahabharata delineates the recurrent war between the good and evil forces, this time played out on earth. Lord Krishna very clearly states that the destruction of evil which threatens dharma is his ultimate purpose. In this purpose, he is helped by the other Krishna, Draupadi whose disrobing by Duhsasana ultimately precipitates the war. She becomes the important force in Krishna’ plan of arranging the battle of Kurukshetra to cleanse that earth of her burden and of evil forces, through Draupadi repeatedly prodding the Pandavas to join the battle and not to settle for peace.
As mentioned above the epic story recounts the tragic tale of the fratricidal conflict between the two branches of the Kuru dynasty, the political intrigues and betrayals, the massive conflict of the final battle and the triumph of the rightful and righteous heirs to the Kingdom. At the same time we become aware of the cosmic dimension of the conflict (M.B-Verse 25 of Ch.58).
The delineation of evil in the epic – the dramatis personae
It is true that both the great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata deal with the triumph of good over evil. But there is a difference in the delineation of evil in the two epics. In Ramayana, the entire villainy is symbolised practically by one character, Ravana. On the contrary the villainy needed to precipitate the ultimate battle and to make events move in that direction is pumped in by a quartet of evil men in the Mahabharata, the diabolical gang of four. This paper intends to present what they symbolize, how they played their part in the grand cosmic drama enacted on earth, pointing out how each contributed at least one item to the salad of wickedness. The quartet comprises of Duryodhana, brother Duhsasana, his uncle Sakuni, and intimate friend Karna.
Vyasa brings out the contrasting characters of the evil quartret and the Pandavas with two beautiful similes.
DURYODHANO MANYUMAYO MAHA DRUMA:
SKANDHA: KARNA: SAKUNISTASYA SAKHA:
DUHSASANA: PUSHPAPHALE SAMRUDHDE
MULAM RAJA DHRITA RASHTRO MANTSHI ||
YUDHISHTIRO DHARMA MAYO MAHADRUMA:
SKANDHORJUNO BHIMSENOSYA SAKHA:
MADRI SUTAU PUSHPA PHALE SAMRUDHDE
MULAM KRISHNO BRAHMA CA BRAMANASCA ||
(M.B.A.1-1-110.iii)
“Duryodhana is a turbulent tree full of anger Karna is the trunk of the tree. Sakuni is the branch. Duhshsana is fully ripened fruit. Indiscreet Dhritarashtira is the root” On the contrary “Yudhistra is a righteous tree. Arjuna is the trunk. Bhima is the branch. Fully ripened fruits are Nakula and Sahadeva, Krishna, and the Brahmins are the roots”
Let us see in a nutshell what each of the quartet represents :-
(1) Sakuni is the brain behind the quartet. He has a complicated brain, which produces all the well planned conspiracies in the epic. His strong point is his perfect understanding of the psychology of the individual. He plays like a competent musician on a lyre, on the proclivities of each individual, whether it is the jealousy and egoistic arrogance of Duryodhana or the vacillating fascination of Yudhishtira for gambling. Hence his plots, based on his understanding how his victims will act under specific circumstances succeed in full measure. In any given situation he would rather like to outwit his enemies through brain work than to vanquish them in battle.
(2) Karna is the other pole to Sakuni. He prefers battling with the foes rather than plotting to bring about their down fall. He is very proud of his mastery over archery and hence wants to depend on armed conflict rather than conspiratorial plots. His munificence and chivalry is only a mask for his innate wickedness.
(3) Duryodhana; He is the natural leader of the evil quartet. He is strongly motivated by the twin motives of the love of power and the hatred of Pandavas born out of Jealousy. He is very strong in his resolve; he is fearless obstinate, and tenacious. Undoubtedly he is a great warrior. But his lust for power and hatred of Pandavas make him totally blind to the concept of Dharma. He is so steeped in ego that he rejects the wise counsel of elders like Bhishma, Vidura, and Drona. He is never discouraged, never embarrassed, dismisses all sane counsels as born out of fear of Pandavas and clings to his path of adharma.
(4) Duhsasana. There seems to be no special qualities in him except a vile servitude to Duryodhana. One feature that stands out in his character is his total lack of ethical sense which makes him an ideal assistant to Duryodhana to carry out all his nefarious intentions, without any qualms or reservation at the bidding of Duryodhana. He proceeds to perform the most heinous act in the entire epic viz the disrobing of Draupadi.
There are several episodes in the epic which bring out the qualities of the evil quartet to the fore.
While many are familiar with the Vyasa Bharata, attempts are made in this paper to draw reference to the famous Tamil Version, the Mahabharata by Villiputhurar, popularly known as Villi.
The Symbolism in the Mahabharata :
At a symbolic level we can say that the Pandavas represent the daivi sampat, and the Kauvaras represent the asura sampat. While Arjuna represents the Jeeva, the other four Pandavas represent the four purusharthas : Yudhishtira representing the ethical values (Dharma), Bhima representing material values (artha), Nakula the social values (Kama), and Sahadeva the spritual values (Moksha). Draupadi symbolizes intellect depending on nothing in the world except the Supreme Self. They are led by the Divine Self of Krishna to the ultimate Goal.
Among the evil quartet “Dushtacatushtayam” Duryodhana is the embodiment of a mind filled with impurities, Karna is the embodiment of exaggerated egoism. Sakuni is the embodiment of falsehood. Duhsasana is the embodiment of evil servitude.
The incidence of Pandavas setting forth to build a new capital at Khandava prastha represents the mind going to explore the unconscious (represented by a verdant forest) rather than feeling contented with what only the conscious mind shows on the phenomenal world as done by the Kauravas led by the evil quartet. The burning of the forest by Krishna (Narayana) and Arjuna (Nara) represent the effort by the self, aided by Divine grace burning out the vasanas leading to the spiritual effulgence of a new city.
The evil in the world never learns. It is symbolized by Duryodhana and the Kauravas going to the forest, while Pandavas were undergoing Vanavas. The evil forces go to the forest to ridicule the pure ones and to parade their wealth. But to their dismay they are defeated and captured by Chitra ratha, the gandharva king, representing dharma’s intervention and are to be ultimately rescued by the Pandavas. Duryodhana, full of shame, wants to fast unto death. But the demons from the nether world rise up to him and assure him that as their chosen representative on earth he is bound to succeed. Thus emboldened, Duryodhana returns to his evil ways. It only shows that evil in human personality can be apparently conquered and brought to a state of degradation but it is hard to keep it suppressed, because it has its roots in the pervasive evil atmosphere in the universe. When you want to do something negative you get lot of promised help.
His arrogance prods him towards his own destruction. When Sage Maitreya gives him advice to make up with the Pandavas, he ignores it and pats his thigh leading to the curse by Maitreya.
The seeds of the war are thrown when Duryodhana gets caught in an embarrassing situation in the Hall of Magic after the Rajasuya Yagna. Looking at him Draupadi in the balcony roars with laughter which lights up a resolve for revenge in his heart. Symbolically when intellect begins to laugh at the failures of a wicked mind, the negative forces get angry. The evil forces never like to be openly observed and ridiculed. So they launch an all out offensive to get the intellect demeaned.
Even when Pandavas are living an austere life in forest, the evil nature of Duryodhana wants their destruction. Since his previous attempt in a raid ended in disgrace for him, he does not want to openly trouble them but he makes a diabolical move. When the angry sage Durvasa comes to him he feeds him sumptuously. When the highly satisfied sage Durvasa asks him for a boon, his desire for causing misery to his foes overcomes his desire to obtain something good for him. He requests Durvasa to go to the forest hamlet of the Pandavas after they have had their food, knowing fully well the Akshaya Paatra of Draupadi will not produce any food after they have had their supper. But when Krishna intervenes to eat the residual leaf left on the vessel at the time when Durvasa had gone to bathe, Durvasa’s belly becomes full. He could not take any more food. Thus Duryodhana’s plan to make the angry sage’s curse visit Pandavas is foiled (M.B. Vana Parva 363 – I)
Here Durvasa represents the rajasic forces, Duryodhana the tamasic energy and the Pandavas the satwic energy. The vessel represents the unconscious mind (Citta) and the residual leaf represents the good samskaras. When it is offered to the supreme self the tamasic and rajasic forces fail.
The next incident in the drama occurs when Arjuna and Duryodhana visit Lord Krishna to request for his help in the war efforts. The incident shows even when choice for redemption is available, the evil mind opts only for the lower material benefits. Before the war when Krishna offers either himself without any army or his army without him, Arjuna chooses the unarmed Krishna while Duryodhana is happy with the Dwaraka Army. Thus the satvic recognises the glory of God as “upadhirahita” without any adjuncts and chooses Him. He puts the Chariot of life in his hand. But Duryodhana’s evil mind, unable to comprehend the glory of God, chooses the army, the material alternative.
In the Udyoga Parva, during Krishna’s visit as the envoy, despite the recognition of Krishna as God by all around him Duryodana’s lower evil self remains unmoved. He refuses to see the reality unfolding around him. His arrogance and pride even prompts him to attempt to imprison Krishna. Thus till the very end the evil forces remain blind to the supreme self present before them.
Among the gang of four, Karna is a special case. Rejected by the Mother at birth, brought up by the charioteer, learning archery by deceit from Parasurama and then getting cursed by him, ridiculed by Arjuna and Draupadi, remaining brave with unshakable faith in his valour and steadfastly loyal to Duryodhana, he is a bundle of contradictions. Even the austerity in service and forbearance he has shown in serving Parasurama, is born out of rajas and tamas. His heroism is meant to serve the forces of darkness and hence he gets cursed by his guru.
In the drama of the Mahabharata, Karna symbolizes Asmita or supreme egoism. Separated from the purusharthas, the Pandavas, ego becomes a destructive force. Thus a Vyakti with ahankara finds comfort among evil forces and does their biddings with relish.
Episodial references and the character Analysis – the Gang of Four
Now let us see the beautiful sculpturing of the character of the gang of four and the interplay of the forces in the Mahabharata.
I. DURYODHANA:
The very birth of Duryodhana was preceded by evil omens. Rattled by this, the blind king asks Vidura what the evil omens portend. Vidura replies that the child born would bring destruction to the entire race and advises him to put an end to the child. Overcome by his attachment to the son Dhritarashtra ignores the sage counsel and nurtures Duryodhana in his evil ways and Duryodhana grows up as an evil incarnate . In the words of Vyasa
TASYA DHARMAADAPETASYA
PAAPANI PARIPASYATAH
MOHAADAISVARYA LOBHAACCHA
PAAPAMATI RAJAAYATA :II
(Mahabharatha 127.26)
“Young Duryodhana grew up as a rake, swerving from the path of Dharma, interested only in sinful acts, always of a confused mind, ever wanting to dominate others. His mind was always fascinated by evil. (Mahabharata Aadi Parva 127 :26)
He found an ideal partner and friend in Karna who reflected his own evil mind.
SPARDHA MAANASTU PAARTHENA
SOOTAPUTROTYA MARSHANAH
DURYODHANAM SAMAASRTTYA
SOVAMANYATA PAANDAVAAN
“Filled with envy and hatred Charioteer’s son - Karna joined evil Duryodhana in heaping insults on the pandavas” ( Aadi Parva 131:12)
Duryodhanas’ hatred of his cousins even makes him do chivalrous acts. On seeing the valorous young Karna throwing a challenge at Arjuna, only to be rejected as an unequal soota putra, he rejects any difference in birth and declares that only valour will merit honour. Eventhough born out of negative motive this crowning of Karna by Duryodhana shows him in good light (Villi 2.67 to 71). However there has always been the potentiality for evil in him. The conspiracy to kill Pandavas at Varanavata is hatched by his evil brain with tacit consent from the blind king even before Sakuni comes into the scene (Villi 2.108) Sakuni only nurtures the poisonous plant to grow into a huge tree.
Duryodhana’s mental make up is such that it could not stomach any failure. When he could not win the hand of Draupadi in her swayamvara, as he failed to bend the bow to hit the target, he does not accept the defeat gracefully. Instead he instigates the other kings to rise against the young ‘brahmin’ Arjuna in disguise who has won the contest (Villi 5.59).
His arrogance leads him on a self-destruct mode. When Vidura feeds Krishna in his house, Duryodana flies into fury and accuses him of being a whore’s son, saying nothing better could be expected from him. This outrage leads to Vidura to breaking his bow (Villi 27-126) which is one of the causes for Duryodhana’s defeat. At the moment of reckoning, Duryodhana shows some grace, even though it is also born out of his egoism. When Yudhishtira requests Duryodhana to accept the throne and have command over all of them, Duryodhana refuses, saying that when his entire kith and kin have given up their lives on his behalf, it is demeaning for him to continue to live out of Yudhishtira’s compassion (Villi 46.160). However, his deceitful nature continues to be there until the last hour. He lies to Bhima as to where the center of his life is situated to gain an undue advantage over his foe in single combat (Villi 46.175). The only occasion where he feels remorseful over the acts of evil is when Aswatthama shows him the severed heads of the Pandavas’ kid-children.
SAKUNI:
Sakuni the evil genius never gives up his venom even for a moment. He never allows Duryodhana’s hostility to diminish in intensity. When Duryodhana starts to plan for the reception of the envoy Sri Krishna, Sakuni scolds him and stops him from arranging that (Villi 2.7.70) He comes out as a thoroughly evil, graceless being, with not even an iota of positivism in him. He, alongwith Duhsasana among the quartet, does not seem to possess any positive or pleasant facet to his character. On the 18th day, even after the entire Kaurava army is destroyed he still goads Duryodhana to fight on (Villi 46.91). He lives his deceitful life to the end fitting the description of him by the Poet, as “the snake like Sakuni”, “Sakuni, unequalled in deceit”. (Villi 24.37).
Karna:
The character of Karna is striking more so in Villi than in Vyasa. Like Milton creating the anti-hero in Satan almost equal to God, Villi has created Karna as the greatest anti hero in Mahabharatha. Due to various factors, this anti-hero fails in critical times.
His gratitude is of the highest order. He continues to be loyal to Duryodhana even after he learnt that the Pandavas are his siblings and his defection to their side would get him the crown. All of Krishna’s wiles and magical powers get used only against him. This itself underscores his valour.
However great may be his loyalty and munificence his innate nature is evil. “Like a person painting the outer wall of his house beautifully but keeping his interiors full of filth”, Karna’s munificence is only an external show. This beautiful simile by Villi aptly brings out the character of Karna. Even when Duryodhana’s resolve, at rare moments, seems to waver he offers him bad counsel and alongwith Sakuni, fans his jealousy and leads him on to evil ways.
An interesting addition by Villi is the episode when Kunti meets Karna. After agreeing that he will not use the Nagastra more than once on Arjuna, and he would not kill any of the other Pandavas, Karna requests Kunti that when he falls on the battle field, she should proclaim to the world that he is her son and suckle him publicly. Kunti actually does it. (Villi 43-253-258). This is a very poignant scene which shows how much torn between his affection for his brothers and loyalty to Duryodhana is Karna.
There is a very interesting improvement by Villi in the scene of Karna’s death. Even when Karna is hit by the arrows of Arjuna, he does not die. He lies on the battle field severely wounded. Krishna realizes that he is protected by his punya. So taking the shape of a Brahmin, Krishna begs Karna of his punya. Using the blood flowing from his wounded chest as water, Karna offers all his Punya to the Brahmin. Then Krishna gives the Viswaroopa Darshan to Karna, the only instance when the Lord gave Viswaroopa Darshan without being solicited – a touching end.
Karna, unlike Duryodana and Duhsasana, has great shrewdness. When Pandavas were doing ajnata vasa in Virata Desa, Duryodhana’s spies bring the news that the powerful Keechaka was killed due to his infatuation with a servant woman. Karna immediately comes out with the idea that if they invade Viratadesa to lift the cattle, Pandavas in their effort to assist the King to recover his herds will be flushed out of their hiding. This was a bright idea. It is another matter that they could not succeed in the mission as the hiding period has ended just on the previous day. (Villi 22.3).
Whatever may be Karna’s great valour and munificence, he comes out as a villain owing to his innate evil quality, jealousy and vanity. Even though he gets vanquished thrice by Arjuna single handedly at the battle in Virata desa, inviting derisive comments from Aswatthama, his vanity never leaves him (Villi 22-75-78). When Bhishma advises Duryodhana to seek peace as they are no match for the Pandavas, Karna vainly boasts of his valour and superior archery and belittles the grand sire. Thus, he, to a great extent is responsible for the false-sense of security in Duryodhana.
The Sarga on the plane for the game of dice: the epitome of the evilness of the quartet.
The wickedness of the evil-gang of four is delineated in its completeness in the chapter on the conspiracy to wage a deceitful game of dice. It is beautifully described in Sarga 11 of Villi Bharatham, where each character is shown up in his true light.
Karna starts the discussion by fuming and fretting at the good fortune of the Pandavas. Sakuni, the evil genius, is happy that all their minds are one in this respect. While Duhsasana gives vent to his wrath on the rise of Pandavas, Duryodhana says that as one has to remove the thorn before it grows into a mighty tree, Pandavas should be destroyed before they became stronger. This should be accomplished by war or by deceit; ways do not matter, only the end matters, Duhsasana, recalls the undue primacy given to Krishna ahead of all of them and the derisive laughter of Draupadi over Duryodhana’s discomfiture in the hall of magic during Raja Suya. This sets fire to the destructive fury of their minds. They agree that as Krishna is away at the moment this is the right moment, but what means to choose? ( Villi 11.12-16).
Karna among the quartet, is the only one who prefers war to deceit, not because of his dislike of adharma but because of his immense faith in his own invincibility. However the choice is made by the one person there with a very practical mind. As a matter of fact, Sakuni declares, even if they take several more births they will not be able to defeat the Pandavas He points out, to their discomfiture, as to how they lost out to the Pandavas in all their previous encounters. He advocates deceit as the only possible way, and also comes out with the full details of the proposed game of deceit. The other three immediately fall in line. (Villi 11.26 – 38).
When Yudhistira arrives, he is invited to the game Sakuni knows the psychology of the individual. He is well aware that Yudhishtira has a natural inclination for gambling. By clervely suggesting that is only a harmless pastime of the royalty, a game for the brave and finally prodding his vanity, Sakuni is able to make Yudhistira agree for the game. Consequently Yudhistra loses everything, including the freedom of himself, his siblings and worst of all, Draupadi also.
The villainy of Karna comes forth here when the loud voice of Vikarna is raised against this injustice. Karna angrily shouts him down (villi 11.2.39-24). Even after wistnessing the miraculous scene of Draupadi’s honour being saved by the Lord’s grace, even after witnessing the terrible oath of Bhima, the evil quartet does not learn. Duryodhana invites her to sit on his lap leading to her terrible oath.
When the frightened King offers the kingdom back to the Pandavas, even the Kauravas are silent; Sakuni fumes and accuses the king of “fondling the tiger by caressing its tail” (Villi 11-265).
This is followed by the second game of dice and the exit of the Pandavas to the forest.
(It is not suggested here that there is a clear binary division between that good and evil characters in the Mahabharata. In fact, in every character there is an admixture of ‘good’ and evil in certain measure. Whatever quality is predominant in a character is taken here to epitomize his nature).
Conclusion
Thus the entire drama of Mahabharata reflects the pitting of evil forces against the forces of good. The evil quartet represents the forces of wickedness, each one has his own motivation but all synergise their strengths to achieve their common goal of defeating and defaming the Pandavas, the representatives of good. Ultimately evil is destroyed and good triumphs.
Finally Vyasa himself says “one should never abandon virtue for the sake of pleasure, out of fear or because of greed, nor even for the sake of life itself Virtue is everlasting, but joy and misery are not, the living being is eternal, but the cause of his existence here is impermanent (MB 18.5.09.50).
This is the lesson we learn from the tragic lives of the evil quartet in the Mahabharata.
We conclude with the words of Will Durant, the great historian, “this poem with logic of structure and splendor of language, in-depth of portraiture and fidelity to be essence of things, is distinguished by fine feelings, a lofty idealization of woman and man and a vigorous – sometimes realistic representation of life. To an Indian, they are not mere stories; they are a gallery of ideal characters upon whom he may mould his conduct; they are a repertory of the traditions, philosophy and theology of his people ; in a sense they are sacred scriptures to be read (W.Durant story of civilisation I-570)
Epics of India:
Itihasa, originated and grown in the context of ancient Indian civilization is very different from the European epic. The modern concept of history, imported to India from the west, has no alignment with Ithihasa. The use of chronology in terms of ordered sequence of intentions and actions rather than in the framework of dates and years is characteristic of Indian thought. In such a view history becomes infused with a purpose higher than merely to record the rise and fall of dynasties and succession of wars, which mention the chronicles of mere men. Noble qualities made them brave manfully with the work of mishaps.
Indian Epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata have a very different objective from that with which Homer’s epics were composed. It was the custom in Homer’s days for bards to compose and recite tales of heroism in verse and get largess from rich patrons. There appears to have been little incentive for these bards to propagate ethical values through their poetic compositions. And the stories they selected to balladize were not based on ethical concepts; A glaring instance is Helen who was abducted by the Trojans, refusing to go back to Greece with the conquering Agamemnan as she preferred to continue to live in Troy. A similar reaction in an Indian epic would be like Sita refusing to go back to Rama as she preferred Lanka to a life in Ayodhya. This kind of reaction is unthinkable from a pativrata in India and Indian epics were constructed on a solid ethical base.
On Agamemnan defeating the Trojans, he returns triumphant to Greece. But his wife Clytemnestra is not exactly happy at the forth coming reunion with her husband. So she orders the construction of a platform where the triumphant king would be felicitated but the platform was to be on weak foundation so that it might collapse on Agamemnan ascending it. Fancy Rama or Yudhishtira meeting a situation like this after their triumph in the great wars that were forced on them !
During the Trojan war, when a Trojan leader, unable to bear the pressure on him tried to surrender to the younger brother of Agamemnan, the latter was listening to him with sympathy when Agamemnan came up and upbraided him. And saying “ you take good care of your foes !” he struck down the Trojan who was bowing low to the second in command. Now it would seem uncivil if we remind ourselves of how Rama treated Vibhishana when he surrendered to him before the war. When the wiser among Rama’s counselors advised him to accept the rakshasa as it would be advantageous to Rama’s side, he gives a classic reply that even if the acceptance of Vibhishana was deleterious to his interests, he would still accept him as no one seeking surrender should in any circumstance be rejected.
Characteristics of Indian Epics – The principle of Dharma:
Thus the epics of India are very characteristic of the objective of thoughtful Indian down the centuries-that one’s life should be regulated not by self-interest but by ethical principles whatever the cost. While both the epics have this clear objective before them, they present it in distinctive ways. In the Ramayana there is little preaching; where necessary, a very brief passage expresses the dharmic principle as in the scene where Vibhishana is accepted by Rama. Even Vasishta the family priest of the kings of Ayodhya does not indulge in long speeches on dharma. Later writes realizing the preaching potential of vasishta have composed huge volumes like the Gnanavasishta and Yogavasishta. Again though Valmikis Rama does not preach to Lakshmana (a captive audience in the forest), a writer saw the potential and composed the Rama Gita.
But the absence of Verbal preaching in the Ramayana does not make it deficient as a book of ethics. For the characters themselves with Rama in the lead live the principles effectively often overcoming with great resolution the temptation to break them. This naturally has the effect of putting across the dharmic concepts most effectively.
Dharma in Mahabharata:
In the Mahabharata, on the other hand, every opportunity for the oral preaching of dharma is seized upon with eagerness by many characters. Whole parvas are given over to such sermonizing, lending great strength to the modern critical view that these are later day interpolation.
Anandavardhana, (9th century A.D.) was the first great Indian critic to highlight the fact that the Mahabharata is at once a saastra (scripture) and a kavya (ornate poem). When deemed as a saastra, its major concern is only with the propagation of the four purusarthas or human values, viz. dharma, artha, kama and moksha. The Mahabharata, for the first time, canalizes into a system all the varied ideas of ancient humanist thinkers of the land, and answers the questions: what is the nature of perfect life for man on earth? This universal and spiritual potential of man is the bed rock on which the entire epic structure is reared; and it is never forgotten that it can be grasped only by the adept few.
Vyasa himself is said to have summarized the quintessence of his teaching in the following verse:
“I am shouting at the top of my voice with upraised arms! But, alas, no one listens to me: It is only by way of dharma that one can achieve artha as well as kama. And why don’t you pursue it wholeheartedly?”.
URDHVA BAHUR VIRAMYESHA
NAA KASCHIT SRUNOTI ME
DHARMARTTHASCA KAAMASCA
SA KIMARITHAM NA SEVYATE
The way of wisdom is that the demands of passionate desire and craze for selfish possessions must be regulated by the norms of ethical conduct.
That dream can become a reality only when a keen awareness of the universal moral law that underlines the human situation becomes a reality, and our actions come to be attuned to the demands made by that Eternal Law of life, viz. dharma.
The Theme of Mahabharata:
The Theme of Mahabharata is the drama of the struggle between good and evil. The good ultimately triumphs As poet Subramanya Bharathi says “Like the Serpent swallowing the sun during the eclipse, dharma will be occluded by deceit. Ultimately good will succeed. Evil will lose out”. Sri Aurobindo points out that “the same drama of human life in Mahabharata is also played out at the cosmic plane, embodying the vedic notions of the struggle between the godheads of truth, light and unity the powers of darkness, division and falsehood which is brought out from the spiritual religious and internal into the outer intellectual ,ethical and vital plane. Here it takes the double form of personal and political struggle- the personal conflict between typical and representative personalities embodying the Indian Dharma and others who are embodiments of Asuric egoism and self-interest and misuse of dharma. The personal struggle culminates in a political battle ending in the establishment of a new rule of righteousness and justice, an empire of dharma, uniting warring races substituting the ambitions and arrogance of kings and aristocratic clans with the probity calm, and peace of a just and humane empire. It is the old struggle between the Devas and Asuras, God and Titan but represented in terms of human life “.
In the Mahabharata, Sage Vyasa transmutes the human conflict to a divine plane. The Adi Parva opens with the Earth, being overpopulated and tyrannised by diabolical forces ,approaching Lord Brahma to save her, Brahma directs the gods that they should help Mother Earth by being born there with a part of themselves on earth to contest the evil forces. The gods led by Indra go to Narayana to request Him to incarnate on earth for destroying the evil forces.
The epic lists out the incarnation of both gods and demons on earth, including those who participate by playing minor role. For instance, Jarasandha is the incarnation of Viparachitti and Hiranya Kasyapa is born as Sisupala. Among the major players, Krishna is the incarnation of Narayana. The evil Kali is born as Duryodhana who would ultimately serve the purpose of relieving the Earth of her burden by launching on wicked schemes born out of jealousy and avarice. The emergence of evil forces is again referred to in Adi Parva, Stri Parva and Asrama Vasika Parva. Thus the theme of Mahabharata delineates the recurrent war between the good and evil forces, this time played out on earth. Lord Krishna very clearly states that the destruction of evil which threatens dharma is his ultimate purpose. In this purpose, he is helped by the other Krishna, Draupadi whose disrobing by Duhsasana ultimately precipitates the war. She becomes the important force in Krishna’ plan of arranging the battle of Kurukshetra to cleanse that earth of her burden and of evil forces, through Draupadi repeatedly prodding the Pandavas to join the battle and not to settle for peace.
As mentioned above the epic story recounts the tragic tale of the fratricidal conflict between the two branches of the Kuru dynasty, the political intrigues and betrayals, the massive conflict of the final battle and the triumph of the rightful and righteous heirs to the Kingdom. At the same time we become aware of the cosmic dimension of the conflict (M.B-Verse 25 of Ch.58).
The delineation of evil in the epic – the dramatis personae
It is true that both the great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata deal with the triumph of good over evil. But there is a difference in the delineation of evil in the two epics. In Ramayana, the entire villainy is symbolised practically by one character, Ravana. On the contrary the villainy needed to precipitate the ultimate battle and to make events move in that direction is pumped in by a quartet of evil men in the Mahabharata, the diabolical gang of four. This paper intends to present what they symbolize, how they played their part in the grand cosmic drama enacted on earth, pointing out how each contributed at least one item to the salad of wickedness. The quartet comprises of Duryodhana, brother Duhsasana, his uncle Sakuni, and intimate friend Karna.
Vyasa brings out the contrasting characters of the evil quartret and the Pandavas with two beautiful similes.
DURYODHANO MANYUMAYO MAHA DRUMA:
SKANDHA: KARNA: SAKUNISTASYA SAKHA:
DUHSASANA: PUSHPAPHALE SAMRUDHDE
MULAM RAJA DHRITA RASHTRO MANTSHI ||
YUDHISHTIRO DHARMA MAYO MAHADRUMA:
SKANDHORJUNO BHIMSENOSYA SAKHA:
MADRI SUTAU PUSHPA PHALE SAMRUDHDE
MULAM KRISHNO BRAHMA CA BRAMANASCA ||
(M.B.A.1-1-110.iii)
“Duryodhana is a turbulent tree full of anger Karna is the trunk of the tree. Sakuni is the branch. Duhshsana is fully ripened fruit. Indiscreet Dhritarashtira is the root” On the contrary “Yudhistra is a righteous tree. Arjuna is the trunk. Bhima is the branch. Fully ripened fruits are Nakula and Sahadeva, Krishna, and the Brahmins are the roots”
Let us see in a nutshell what each of the quartet represents :-
(1) Sakuni is the brain behind the quartet. He has a complicated brain, which produces all the well planned conspiracies in the epic. His strong point is his perfect understanding of the psychology of the individual. He plays like a competent musician on a lyre, on the proclivities of each individual, whether it is the jealousy and egoistic arrogance of Duryodhana or the vacillating fascination of Yudhishtira for gambling. Hence his plots, based on his understanding how his victims will act under specific circumstances succeed in full measure. In any given situation he would rather like to outwit his enemies through brain work than to vanquish them in battle.
(2) Karna is the other pole to Sakuni. He prefers battling with the foes rather than plotting to bring about their down fall. He is very proud of his mastery over archery and hence wants to depend on armed conflict rather than conspiratorial plots. His munificence and chivalry is only a mask for his innate wickedness.
(3) Duryodhana; He is the natural leader of the evil quartet. He is strongly motivated by the twin motives of the love of power and the hatred of Pandavas born out of Jealousy. He is very strong in his resolve; he is fearless obstinate, and tenacious. Undoubtedly he is a great warrior. But his lust for power and hatred of Pandavas make him totally blind to the concept of Dharma. He is so steeped in ego that he rejects the wise counsel of elders like Bhishma, Vidura, and Drona. He is never discouraged, never embarrassed, dismisses all sane counsels as born out of fear of Pandavas and clings to his path of adharma.
(4) Duhsasana. There seems to be no special qualities in him except a vile servitude to Duryodhana. One feature that stands out in his character is his total lack of ethical sense which makes him an ideal assistant to Duryodhana to carry out all his nefarious intentions, without any qualms or reservation at the bidding of Duryodhana. He proceeds to perform the most heinous act in the entire epic viz the disrobing of Draupadi.
There are several episodes in the epic which bring out the qualities of the evil quartet to the fore.
While many are familiar with the Vyasa Bharata, attempts are made in this paper to draw reference to the famous Tamil Version, the Mahabharata by Villiputhurar, popularly known as Villi.
The Symbolism in the Mahabharata :
At a symbolic level we can say that the Pandavas represent the daivi sampat, and the Kauvaras represent the asura sampat. While Arjuna represents the Jeeva, the other four Pandavas represent the four purusharthas : Yudhishtira representing the ethical values (Dharma), Bhima representing material values (artha), Nakula the social values (Kama), and Sahadeva the spritual values (Moksha). Draupadi symbolizes intellect depending on nothing in the world except the Supreme Self. They are led by the Divine Self of Krishna to the ultimate Goal.
Among the evil quartet “Dushtacatushtayam” Duryodhana is the embodiment of a mind filled with impurities, Karna is the embodiment of exaggerated egoism. Sakuni is the embodiment of falsehood. Duhsasana is the embodiment of evil servitude.
The incidence of Pandavas setting forth to build a new capital at Khandava prastha represents the mind going to explore the unconscious (represented by a verdant forest) rather than feeling contented with what only the conscious mind shows on the phenomenal world as done by the Kauravas led by the evil quartet. The burning of the forest by Krishna (Narayana) and Arjuna (Nara) represent the effort by the self, aided by Divine grace burning out the vasanas leading to the spiritual effulgence of a new city.
The evil in the world never learns. It is symbolized by Duryodhana and the Kauravas going to the forest, while Pandavas were undergoing Vanavas. The evil forces go to the forest to ridicule the pure ones and to parade their wealth. But to their dismay they are defeated and captured by Chitra ratha, the gandharva king, representing dharma’s intervention and are to be ultimately rescued by the Pandavas. Duryodhana, full of shame, wants to fast unto death. But the demons from the nether world rise up to him and assure him that as their chosen representative on earth he is bound to succeed. Thus emboldened, Duryodhana returns to his evil ways. It only shows that evil in human personality can be apparently conquered and brought to a state of degradation but it is hard to keep it suppressed, because it has its roots in the pervasive evil atmosphere in the universe. When you want to do something negative you get lot of promised help.
His arrogance prods him towards his own destruction. When Sage Maitreya gives him advice to make up with the Pandavas, he ignores it and pats his thigh leading to the curse by Maitreya.
The seeds of the war are thrown when Duryodhana gets caught in an embarrassing situation in the Hall of Magic after the Rajasuya Yagna. Looking at him Draupadi in the balcony roars with laughter which lights up a resolve for revenge in his heart. Symbolically when intellect begins to laugh at the failures of a wicked mind, the negative forces get angry. The evil forces never like to be openly observed and ridiculed. So they launch an all out offensive to get the intellect demeaned.
Even when Pandavas are living an austere life in forest, the evil nature of Duryodhana wants their destruction. Since his previous attempt in a raid ended in disgrace for him, he does not want to openly trouble them but he makes a diabolical move. When the angry sage Durvasa comes to him he feeds him sumptuously. When the highly satisfied sage Durvasa asks him for a boon, his desire for causing misery to his foes overcomes his desire to obtain something good for him. He requests Durvasa to go to the forest hamlet of the Pandavas after they have had their food, knowing fully well the Akshaya Paatra of Draupadi will not produce any food after they have had their supper. But when Krishna intervenes to eat the residual leaf left on the vessel at the time when Durvasa had gone to bathe, Durvasa’s belly becomes full. He could not take any more food. Thus Duryodhana’s plan to make the angry sage’s curse visit Pandavas is foiled (M.B. Vana Parva 363 – I)
Here Durvasa represents the rajasic forces, Duryodhana the tamasic energy and the Pandavas the satwic energy. The vessel represents the unconscious mind (Citta) and the residual leaf represents the good samskaras. When it is offered to the supreme self the tamasic and rajasic forces fail.
The next incident in the drama occurs when Arjuna and Duryodhana visit Lord Krishna to request for his help in the war efforts. The incident shows even when choice for redemption is available, the evil mind opts only for the lower material benefits. Before the war when Krishna offers either himself without any army or his army without him, Arjuna chooses the unarmed Krishna while Duryodhana is happy with the Dwaraka Army. Thus the satvic recognises the glory of God as “upadhirahita” without any adjuncts and chooses Him. He puts the Chariot of life in his hand. But Duryodhana’s evil mind, unable to comprehend the glory of God, chooses the army, the material alternative.
In the Udyoga Parva, during Krishna’s visit as the envoy, despite the recognition of Krishna as God by all around him Duryodana’s lower evil self remains unmoved. He refuses to see the reality unfolding around him. His arrogance and pride even prompts him to attempt to imprison Krishna. Thus till the very end the evil forces remain blind to the supreme self present before them.
Among the gang of four, Karna is a special case. Rejected by the Mother at birth, brought up by the charioteer, learning archery by deceit from Parasurama and then getting cursed by him, ridiculed by Arjuna and Draupadi, remaining brave with unshakable faith in his valour and steadfastly loyal to Duryodhana, he is a bundle of contradictions. Even the austerity in service and forbearance he has shown in serving Parasurama, is born out of rajas and tamas. His heroism is meant to serve the forces of darkness and hence he gets cursed by his guru.
In the drama of the Mahabharata, Karna symbolizes Asmita or supreme egoism. Separated from the purusharthas, the Pandavas, ego becomes a destructive force. Thus a Vyakti with ahankara finds comfort among evil forces and does their biddings with relish.
Episodial references and the character Analysis – the Gang of Four
Now let us see the beautiful sculpturing of the character of the gang of four and the interplay of the forces in the Mahabharata.
I. DURYODHANA:
The very birth of Duryodhana was preceded by evil omens. Rattled by this, the blind king asks Vidura what the evil omens portend. Vidura replies that the child born would bring destruction to the entire race and advises him to put an end to the child. Overcome by his attachment to the son Dhritarashtra ignores the sage counsel and nurtures Duryodhana in his evil ways and Duryodhana grows up as an evil incarnate . In the words of Vyasa
TASYA DHARMAADAPETASYA
PAAPANI PARIPASYATAH
MOHAADAISVARYA LOBHAACCHA
PAAPAMATI RAJAAYATA :II
(Mahabharatha 127.26)
“Young Duryodhana grew up as a rake, swerving from the path of Dharma, interested only in sinful acts, always of a confused mind, ever wanting to dominate others. His mind was always fascinated by evil. (Mahabharata Aadi Parva 127 :26)
He found an ideal partner and friend in Karna who reflected his own evil mind.
SPARDHA MAANASTU PAARTHENA
SOOTAPUTROTYA MARSHANAH
DURYODHANAM SAMAASRTTYA
SOVAMANYATA PAANDAVAAN
“Filled with envy and hatred Charioteer’s son - Karna joined evil Duryodhana in heaping insults on the pandavas” ( Aadi Parva 131:12)
Duryodhanas’ hatred of his cousins even makes him do chivalrous acts. On seeing the valorous young Karna throwing a challenge at Arjuna, only to be rejected as an unequal soota putra, he rejects any difference in birth and declares that only valour will merit honour. Eventhough born out of negative motive this crowning of Karna by Duryodhana shows him in good light (Villi 2.67 to 71). However there has always been the potentiality for evil in him. The conspiracy to kill Pandavas at Varanavata is hatched by his evil brain with tacit consent from the blind king even before Sakuni comes into the scene (Villi 2.108) Sakuni only nurtures the poisonous plant to grow into a huge tree.
Duryodhana’s mental make up is such that it could not stomach any failure. When he could not win the hand of Draupadi in her swayamvara, as he failed to bend the bow to hit the target, he does not accept the defeat gracefully. Instead he instigates the other kings to rise against the young ‘brahmin’ Arjuna in disguise who has won the contest (Villi 5.59).
His arrogance leads him on a self-destruct mode. When Vidura feeds Krishna in his house, Duryodana flies into fury and accuses him of being a whore’s son, saying nothing better could be expected from him. This outrage leads to Vidura to breaking his bow (Villi 27-126) which is one of the causes for Duryodhana’s defeat. At the moment of reckoning, Duryodhana shows some grace, even though it is also born out of his egoism. When Yudhishtira requests Duryodhana to accept the throne and have command over all of them, Duryodhana refuses, saying that when his entire kith and kin have given up their lives on his behalf, it is demeaning for him to continue to live out of Yudhishtira’s compassion (Villi 46.160). However, his deceitful nature continues to be there until the last hour. He lies to Bhima as to where the center of his life is situated to gain an undue advantage over his foe in single combat (Villi 46.175). The only occasion where he feels remorseful over the acts of evil is when Aswatthama shows him the severed heads of the Pandavas’ kid-children.
SAKUNI:
Sakuni the evil genius never gives up his venom even for a moment. He never allows Duryodhana’s hostility to diminish in intensity. When Duryodhana starts to plan for the reception of the envoy Sri Krishna, Sakuni scolds him and stops him from arranging that (Villi 2.7.70) He comes out as a thoroughly evil, graceless being, with not even an iota of positivism in him. He, alongwith Duhsasana among the quartet, does not seem to possess any positive or pleasant facet to his character. On the 18th day, even after the entire Kaurava army is destroyed he still goads Duryodhana to fight on (Villi 46.91). He lives his deceitful life to the end fitting the description of him by the Poet, as “the snake like Sakuni”, “Sakuni, unequalled in deceit”. (Villi 24.37).
Karna:
The character of Karna is striking more so in Villi than in Vyasa. Like Milton creating the anti-hero in Satan almost equal to God, Villi has created Karna as the greatest anti hero in Mahabharatha. Due to various factors, this anti-hero fails in critical times.
His gratitude is of the highest order. He continues to be loyal to Duryodhana even after he learnt that the Pandavas are his siblings and his defection to their side would get him the crown. All of Krishna’s wiles and magical powers get used only against him. This itself underscores his valour.
However great may be his loyalty and munificence his innate nature is evil. “Like a person painting the outer wall of his house beautifully but keeping his interiors full of filth”, Karna’s munificence is only an external show. This beautiful simile by Villi aptly brings out the character of Karna. Even when Duryodhana’s resolve, at rare moments, seems to waver he offers him bad counsel and alongwith Sakuni, fans his jealousy and leads him on to evil ways.
An interesting addition by Villi is the episode when Kunti meets Karna. After agreeing that he will not use the Nagastra more than once on Arjuna, and he would not kill any of the other Pandavas, Karna requests Kunti that when he falls on the battle field, she should proclaim to the world that he is her son and suckle him publicly. Kunti actually does it. (Villi 43-253-258). This is a very poignant scene which shows how much torn between his affection for his brothers and loyalty to Duryodhana is Karna.
There is a very interesting improvement by Villi in the scene of Karna’s death. Even when Karna is hit by the arrows of Arjuna, he does not die. He lies on the battle field severely wounded. Krishna realizes that he is protected by his punya. So taking the shape of a Brahmin, Krishna begs Karna of his punya. Using the blood flowing from his wounded chest as water, Karna offers all his Punya to the Brahmin. Then Krishna gives the Viswaroopa Darshan to Karna, the only instance when the Lord gave Viswaroopa Darshan without being solicited – a touching end.
Karna, unlike Duryodana and Duhsasana, has great shrewdness. When Pandavas were doing ajnata vasa in Virata Desa, Duryodhana’s spies bring the news that the powerful Keechaka was killed due to his infatuation with a servant woman. Karna immediately comes out with the idea that if they invade Viratadesa to lift the cattle, Pandavas in their effort to assist the King to recover his herds will be flushed out of their hiding. This was a bright idea. It is another matter that they could not succeed in the mission as the hiding period has ended just on the previous day. (Villi 22.3).
Whatever may be Karna’s great valour and munificence, he comes out as a villain owing to his innate evil quality, jealousy and vanity. Even though he gets vanquished thrice by Arjuna single handedly at the battle in Virata desa, inviting derisive comments from Aswatthama, his vanity never leaves him (Villi 22-75-78). When Bhishma advises Duryodhana to seek peace as they are no match for the Pandavas, Karna vainly boasts of his valour and superior archery and belittles the grand sire. Thus, he, to a great extent is responsible for the false-sense of security in Duryodhana.
The Sarga on the plane for the game of dice: the epitome of the evilness of the quartet.
The wickedness of the evil-gang of four is delineated in its completeness in the chapter on the conspiracy to wage a deceitful game of dice. It is beautifully described in Sarga 11 of Villi Bharatham, where each character is shown up in his true light.
Karna starts the discussion by fuming and fretting at the good fortune of the Pandavas. Sakuni, the evil genius, is happy that all their minds are one in this respect. While Duhsasana gives vent to his wrath on the rise of Pandavas, Duryodhana says that as one has to remove the thorn before it grows into a mighty tree, Pandavas should be destroyed before they became stronger. This should be accomplished by war or by deceit; ways do not matter, only the end matters, Duhsasana, recalls the undue primacy given to Krishna ahead of all of them and the derisive laughter of Draupadi over Duryodhana’s discomfiture in the hall of magic during Raja Suya. This sets fire to the destructive fury of their minds. They agree that as Krishna is away at the moment this is the right moment, but what means to choose? ( Villi 11.12-16).
Karna among the quartet, is the only one who prefers war to deceit, not because of his dislike of adharma but because of his immense faith in his own invincibility. However the choice is made by the one person there with a very practical mind. As a matter of fact, Sakuni declares, even if they take several more births they will not be able to defeat the Pandavas He points out, to their discomfiture, as to how they lost out to the Pandavas in all their previous encounters. He advocates deceit as the only possible way, and also comes out with the full details of the proposed game of deceit. The other three immediately fall in line. (Villi 11.26 – 38).
When Yudhistira arrives, he is invited to the game Sakuni knows the psychology of the individual. He is well aware that Yudhishtira has a natural inclination for gambling. By clervely suggesting that is only a harmless pastime of the royalty, a game for the brave and finally prodding his vanity, Sakuni is able to make Yudhistira agree for the game. Consequently Yudhistra loses everything, including the freedom of himself, his siblings and worst of all, Draupadi also.
The villainy of Karna comes forth here when the loud voice of Vikarna is raised against this injustice. Karna angrily shouts him down (villi 11.2.39-24). Even after wistnessing the miraculous scene of Draupadi’s honour being saved by the Lord’s grace, even after witnessing the terrible oath of Bhima, the evil quartet does not learn. Duryodhana invites her to sit on his lap leading to her terrible oath.
When the frightened King offers the kingdom back to the Pandavas, even the Kauravas are silent; Sakuni fumes and accuses the king of “fondling the tiger by caressing its tail” (Villi 11-265).
This is followed by the second game of dice and the exit of the Pandavas to the forest.
(It is not suggested here that there is a clear binary division between that good and evil characters in the Mahabharata. In fact, in every character there is an admixture of ‘good’ and evil in certain measure. Whatever quality is predominant in a character is taken here to epitomize his nature).
Conclusion
Thus the entire drama of Mahabharata reflects the pitting of evil forces against the forces of good. The evil quartet represents the forces of wickedness, each one has his own motivation but all synergise their strengths to achieve their common goal of defeating and defaming the Pandavas, the representatives of good. Ultimately evil is destroyed and good triumphs.
Finally Vyasa himself says “one should never abandon virtue for the sake of pleasure, out of fear or because of greed, nor even for the sake of life itself Virtue is everlasting, but joy and misery are not, the living being is eternal, but the cause of his existence here is impermanent (MB 18.5.09.50).
This is the lesson we learn from the tragic lives of the evil quartet in the Mahabharata.
We conclude with the words of Will Durant, the great historian, “this poem with logic of structure and splendor of language, in-depth of portraiture and fidelity to be essence of things, is distinguished by fine feelings, a lofty idealization of woman and man and a vigorous – sometimes realistic representation of life. To an Indian, they are not mere stories; they are a gallery of ideal characters upon whom he may mould his conduct; they are a repertory of the traditions, philosophy and theology of his people ; in a sense they are sacred scriptures to be read (W.Durant story of civilisation I-570)
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